Community Dentistry Archives

Percentive Communitive Dentistry Question and Answers

November 4, 2024November 21, 2023 by Sainavle

Percentive Communitive Dentistry Question and Answer

Payment For Dental Care Question And Answers

November 4, 2024August 25, 2023 by divya

Payment For Dental Care Definitions

Capitation

It is defined as a fixed monthly/ yearly payment paid by a carrier to a dentist in a closed panel, based on the number of patients assigned to the dentist for treatment

Table of allowances

It is defined as a list of covered services that assigns to each service a sum that represents the total obligation of the plan to payment for such service but that does not necessarily represent a dentist’s full fee for that service

Payment For Dental Care Important Notes

1. Mechanism of payment

Private fee for service
- Two party arrangement
- The most efficient way and structurally acceptable
- Only system under which some form of dental care is likely to be provided
- The system is flexible
Post-payment plans
- Under this, patient borrows the money from a bank or finance company to pay the dentist’s fees
- Used by middle-class and low-income group
Private third-party prepayment
- Payment for services is by some agencies such as insurance company
Deductible
- The stipulated sum that the patient must pay toward the cost of treatment
Coinsurance
- The patient pays a percentage of the total cost of treatment
Group insurance
- Health insurance is offered to groups.

Read And Learn More: Percentive Communitive Dentistry Question And Answers

2. UCR fee

U- Usual fee
- The fee usually charged for a given service by an individual dentist to private patients
C- Customary fee
- A fee is customary when it is in the range of the usual fee charged by dentists of similar training & experience for the same service within a specific & limited geographic area
R- Reasonable fee
- A fee is reasonable if it meets the above two criteria

3. Table of allowances

It is defined as a list of covered services that assigns to each service a sum that represents the total obligation of the plan concerning payment for such service but that does not necessarily represent a dentist’s full fee for that service
If the dentist’s fee becomes more than that assigned to that service by the carrier, the remainder will be collected by the dentist from the patient

Payment For Dental Care

Payment For Dental Care Long Essays

Question 1. Describe the payment plan for dental care.
Answer:

Dental care Private Fee For Service:

It is a two-way arrangement of reimbursement of dental services
Dentists prefer to practice under this arrangement
It is the most efficient way of providing dental care
It is an integral part of private practice

Dental care Advantages:

Culturally acceptable
Flexible
Simple
Provide dental care

Dental care Disadvantages:

Not affordable to some patients
Thus they are unable to receive dental care

Dental care Post-Payment Plans:

Introduced in the late 1930s by local dental societies in Pennsylvania & Michigan
Under this arrangement, the patient borrows money from a bank/ finance company to pay the dentist’s fee
After the application is approved, the dentist is paid the entire fee
The patient then repays the loan to the bank in the budgeted amount

Dental care Disadvantages:

It was planned for low-income groups but was used by middle-income group
Also, low-income patients find it difficult to accept the use of credit by lending institution

Dental care Private Third-Party Prepayment Plans:

Dental care Definition:

It is defined as “payment for services by some agency rather than directly by the beneficiary of those services”

First Party: Dentist

Second Party: the patient

Third Party: finance

Third-party refers to a private carrier such as an insurance company

Dental care Types:

Deductible
Co-insurance
Group insurance

Dental care Plans:

Commercial insurance companies
- Can be more selective
- Claim no obligation toward dental health
- Provide specific cash payment reimbursement
- Present an attractive total health package
- Do not conduct a post-treatment dental examination

Dental care Advantage:

Payment is quicker & hassle-free

Dental care Disadvantage:

Do not encourage the utilization of professional services
Allow for the profit margin
Nonprofit health service corporation
Delta dental plans: ensures that
- The care claimed & paid for has been provided
- It is of acceptable quality
Blue Cross/Blue Shield
- These have adopted many of the cost control features pioneered by Delta plans
Prepaid group practice
- Provides dental services on a prepaid basis

Types of Dental care :

General practice groups
Single specialty groups
Multi-specialty groups

Dental care Capitation plans:

It is defined as a fixed monthly/ yearly payment paid by a carrier to a dentist in a closed panel, based on the number of patients assigned to the dentist for treatment

Dental care Salary:

Dentists in some group practices, those in the armed forces & those employed by public agencies are salaried

Dental care Advantages:

Dentists will be largely free of business concern
Attractive fringe benefits

Dental care Disadvantages:

Lack of financial incentive

Dental Care Public Program:

Aimed at fulfilling the needs of specific groups of the society
Sponsored by the government

Dental care Includes:

Medicare
Medicaid
National health insurance

Payment For Dental Care Short Essays

Question 1. Delta dental plans (or) Third party payments (or) Mechanism/method of payment for the rental car
Answer:

Delta dental plans

It is a legally constituted non-profit organization incorporated on a state-by-state basis & sponsored by a constituent dental society to negotiate & administer contracts for dental care
They are usually subjected to the insurance laws of the state in which they are constituted

Dental plans Members:

Dentist’s elected from the state
Members from the world of finance, insurance, labor & consumer groups

Dental plans Activities:

Ensure the quality of care provided
Keep the program’s costs within its limit
Ensures the care claimed & paid for has been provided
Encourage the utilization of services
Meet the demand for group purchase of dental care

Dental plans Advantages:

Control of cost
Quality assurance
Wide support from dental practitioners
The patients know they will not have to pay extra for their treatment
Encourage all dentists to participate

Question 2. Medicare.
Answer:

Medicare

Title XVIII of the Social Security Amendments of 1965 is the program known as Medicare
It removes all financial barriers to hospital & physician services for all persons aged 65 & over, regardless of their financial means
It was brought into being because the voluntary health insurance system was unable to provide adequately for persons over the age of 65
Because the income of persons aged 65 & older is less, they have limited funds to spend on healthcare
It is limited to those services requiring hospitalization for their treatment, usually a surgical treatment for fracture & cancer

Medicare Parts:

Part A: Hospital insurance
Part B: Supplemental medical insurance
Both contain a highly complex series of service benefits available
Both require some payment by the patient

Payment For Dental Care Short Question And Answers

Question 1. Capitation.
Answer:

Capitation Definition:

It is defined as a fixed monthly/ yearly payment paid by a carrier to a dentist in a closed panel, based on the number of patients assigned to the dentist for treatment

Significance Of Capitation:

These plans are not purchased by specified groups but an individual can buy in
Many of these plans offer only limited services
Risk is low
These plans are attractive where there is an oversupply of the dentist

Capitation Plans:

Closed panel
- For beneficiaries of plans using closed panels choice of dentist is limited to panel members & the dentist must accept any beneficiary as a patient
Open panel
- The beneficiary has a choice from among all licensed dentists & the dentist may accept/ reject any beneficiary

Question 2. Post payments.
Answer:

Post payments

Introduced in the late 1930s by local dental societies in Pennsylvania & Michigan
Under this arrangement, the patient borrows money from a bank/ finance company to pay the dentist’s fee
After the application is approved, the dentist is paid the entire fee
The patient then repays the loan to the bank in the budgeted amount
Disadvantages
It was planned for low-income groups but was used by middle-income group
Also, low-income patients find it difficult to accept the use of credit by lending institution

Question 3. Fee for services.
Answer:

Fee for services

It is the two-way arrangement of reimbursement of dental services
Dentists prefer to practice under this arrangement
It is the most efficient way of providing dental care
It is an integral part of private practice

Fee for services Advantages:

Culturally acceptable
Flexible
Simple
Provide dental care

Fee for services Disadvantages:

Not affordable to some patients
Thus they are unable to receive dental care

Question 4. Table of allowances.
Answer:

Table of allowances

It is defined as a list of covered services that assigns to each service a sum that represents the total obligation of the plan concerning payment for such service but that does not necessarily represent a dentist’s full fee for that service
If the dentist’s fee becomes more than that assigned to that service by the carrier, the remainder will be collected by the dentist from the patient

Allowances Disadvantage:

Patients are often unaware that the plan may not cover them in full for dental care

Question 5. Blue Cross & Blue Shield.
Answer:

Blue Cross & Blue Shield

These are non-profit health service corporation
It is limited to services provided in a hospital
It showed no enthusiasm for dental prepayment
It has adopted many of the cost control features pioneered by Delta plans

Question 6. 90th percentile.
Answer:

90th percentile

The percentiles of a set of data divide the total frequency into hundredth so that the 90th percentile is that value below which 90 percent of the observations lie
When payment is made at the 90th percentile, it means that a payment of Rs 78 or their actual fee is paid to the participating dentists

Question 7. Medicaid.
Answer:

Medicaid

It is the name given to title XIX of the United Social Security Amendments of 1965
Its original intent was to provide funds to meet the healthcare needs of all indigent & medically indigent persons
It is a joint federal-state program covering at least 3 basic services
- Inpatient hospital care
- Outpatient hospital care
- Laboratory & x-ray services
- Skilled nursing facilities
- Home health services
- Early & periodic screening, diagnosis & treatment (EPSDT) program
- Family planning services
- Physician services
It is an extremely complex program
Although the program has reached a large number of people, many needy persons are unable to receive dental care under it

Question 8. UCR fee. / Usual and customary fee
Answer:

U- Usual Fee:

The fee usually charged for a given service by an individual dentist to private patients

C- Customary Fee:

A fee is customary when it is in the range of the usual fee charged by dentists of similar training & experience for the same service within a specific & limited geographic area

R- Reasonable Fee:

A fee is reasonable if it meets the above two criteria

Question 9. Front-end payment.
Answer:

It has connections to various card associations
It supplies authorization and settlement services to the bank’s merchant

Payment For Dental Care Viva Voce

Fee for service is the traditional form of reimbursement for dental services
Potential patients not able to afford dental care the limited to private fees for service
The third party in the private third-party pre-payment plans is called the carrier
Front-end payment refers to deductible
A public program aimed at the benefit of those over 65 years is Medicare
A public program providing funds to meet the health care needs of all indigent and medically indigent people in Medicaid
Robinhood practice-price discrimination can be practiced in a private fee-for-service mode of payment

Health Care Delivery System Question And Answers

November 4, 2024August 14, 2023 by divya

Health Care Delivery System Definitions

Primary health care

Essential health care based on practical, scientifically sound, and socially acceptable methods and technology made universally accessible to individuals and families in the community through their full participation and at the cost that the community and the country can afford to maintain at every stage of their development in the spirit of self-determination

Voluntary health agencies

Voluntary health agencies may be defined as an organization that is administered by an autonomous board, which holds meetings, collects funds for its support chiefly from private sources, and expends money, whether with or without paid workers, in conducting a program directed primarily to furthering the public health by providing health services or health education, or by advancing research or legislation for health, or by a combination of these activities

Health Care Delivery System Important Notes

1. Components of alma ata declaration are:

Education about health problems and their preventive and controlling methods
Adequate supply of safe water and basic sanitation
Provision of essential drugs
Promotion of food supply and proper nutrition
Maternal and child health care including family planning
Immunization against infectious diseases
Prevention and control of endemic diseases
Appropriate treatment of common diseases and injuries

Read And Learn More: Percentive Communitive Dentistry Question And Answers

2. Principles of primary healthcare

Equitable distribution
Community participation
Intersectoral coordination Appropriate technology
Focus on prevention

3. Voluntary health agencies in India

Agencies
- Indian Red Cross Society
- Hind Kusht Nivaran Sangh
- Indian Council for Child Welfare
- Tuberculosis Association of India

Read And Learn More: Percentive Communitive Dentistry Question And Answers

- Bharat Sewak Samaj
- Central Social Welfare Board
- Kasturba Memorial Funds
- Family Planning Association

Health Care Delivery System Long Essays

Question 1. Describe existing dental health services in India
Answer:

Public Health Sector:

1. Primary Health Care:

Primary health centers:

Each center covers a population of 1,00,000 and is spread over about 100 villages
Primary health centers act as a referral unit for 6 sub-centers
Functions
- Medical care
- Maternal and child health including family planning
- Safe water supply and basic sanitation
- Prevention and control of locally endemic disease
- Collecting and reporting vital statistics
- Education about health
- National health programs
- Referral services
- Training of health workers, health guides, local dais, and health assistants
- Basic laboratory health services
Sub-centers
- Sub-centers are the peripheral outpost of the existing health delivery system in rural areas
- Sub-centers cover a population of 5000 in general and 3000 in hilly, tribal, and backward areas
- One male and one female multipurpose health worker attends each sub-center
- Each supervises the work of 6 health workers
- Sub-centers function is limited to mother and child health care, family planning and immunization

2. Hospitals/Health Care:

Community health care
- Hospitals upgrade public healthcare
- Hospitals cover an 80,000 to 1.2 lakh population with 30 beds and specialists who refer a patient directly to a state-level hospital
Rural hospital
- Rural hospital upgrades the rural dispensaries to public health center
District hospital

3. Health Insurance Scheme:

The Health Insurance Scheme is limited to industrial workers and their families
They provide reasonable medical care plus some essential preventive and promotive health services
- Employees state insurance
  - Health Insurance Scheme provides medical care in cash and kind
Central government health scheme
- Central government health scheme provides comprehensive medical care to central government employees

4. Others:

Health care of railway employees
- Provide health services to railway hospitals, health units, and clinics
Defense medical services
- Under the banner “Armed Forces Medical Services”

Private Sector:

1. Privater Hospitals, Polyclinic, Nursing Homes and Dispensaries:

Provide a large share of the health services

2. General Practitioners:

Constitute 70% of the medical profession
They provide mainly curative services

Indigenous Systems of Medicine:

Provide bulk of medical care to the rural people

Voluntary Health Agencies:

It may be defined as an organization that is administered by an autonomous board that holds meetings, collects funds for its support chiefly from private sources, and expends money, whether with or without paid workers, in conducting a program directed primarily to furthering the public health by providing health services or health education, or by advancing research or legislation for health, or by a combination of these activities

National Health Programmes:

National Malaria Eradication Programme
National Filaria Control Programme
National Tuberculosis Programme
National Leprosy Eradication Programme
Diarrhoeal Diseases Control Programme
STD Control Programme
National Programme for Control of Blindness
Iodine Deficiency Disorder Programme
Universal Immunization Programme
National Family Welfare Programme

Question 3. Define Primary healthcare
Answer:

Primary Healthcare Definition:

Essential health care based on practical, scientifically sound, and socially acceptable methods and technology made universally accessible to individuals & families in the community through their full participation and at the cost that the community and the country can afford to maintain at every stage of their development in the spirit of self-determination

Primary healthcare Principles:

Equitable distribution
- Health services must be shared equally by all people ( rich, poor, urban or rural residents)
- Public health center aims to redress social injustice by shifting the center of gravity of the health care system from cities to rural areas
Community participation
- The community must be involved in the planning, implementation, and maintenance of health services
- The involvement of individuals, families, and communities in the promotion of their health and welfare is an essential component of public health center
- In China, community participation is in the form of bare-foot doctors
- In India, village health guides and local dais provide public health care by overcoming cultural and communication barriers
Intersectoral coordination
- Planning with other sectors should be carried out to avoid unnecessary duplication of activities
- For it, the administrative system of the country has to be reviewed, their resources reallocated & suitable legislation introduced
- To improve oral health care more attention must be given to policies & strategies that require multi-sectoral cooperation & action
Appropriate technology
- It is defined as technology that is scientifically sound, adaptable to local needs, and acceptable to those who apply it & to those for whom it is used, and that can be maintained by the people themselves in keeping with the principles of self-reliance with the resources the community & country can afford
- This applies to using costly equipment procedures and technology when cheaper, scientifically valid, and acceptable ones are available
Focus on prevention
- Health services should however not only be curative but should also promote health and healthy lifestyles with an emphasis on prevention

Health Care Delivery System

Health Care Delivery System Short Essays

Question 1. Primary health care.
Answer:

Primary health care Definition:

Essential health care based on practical, scientifically sound, and socially acceptable methods and technology made universally accessible to individuals and families in the community through their full participation and at the cost that the community and the country can afford to maintain at every stage of their development in the spirit of self-determination

Primary health care Functions:

Medical care:

Maternal and child health including family planning
Safe water supply and basic sanitation
Prevention and control of locally endemic disease
Collecting and reporting vital statistics
Education about health
National health programs
Referral services
Training of health workers, health guides, local dais and health assistants
Basic laboratory health services

Primary health care Principles:

Equitable distribution:

Community participation
Intersectoral coordination
Appropriate technology
Focus on prevention

Question 2. Bhore committee.
Answer:

Bhore committee

Appointed in 1943 with Sir Joseph Bhore as its chairman
Bhore committee suggested one public health center for 40,000 population
Bhore committee aimed to provide integrated, curative & preventive health care to the rural population with an emphasis on preventive & promotive aspects
Bhore committee aimed to serve a population with 6 medical officers,
Demonstration of public health nurses & other supporting staff

Bhore committee Synonyms:

Health Survey and Development Committee
Comprehensive Health Care
Meaning the provision of integrated preventive, curative & promotional health services from “Womb to Tomb”.

Question 3. Village health guide.
Answer:

Village health guide

The village health guide was introduced on 2nd October 1977
A village health guide is a person mostly a woman with an aptitude for social service
Characteristics: they should be
- Permanent resident of the local community
- Have a minimum formal education of at least up to VI standard
- Acceptable to all sections of the community
- Able to spare at least 2-3 hours every day for community health work
After selection, they undergo training in the nearest primary health center for 200 hours spread over 3 months and receive Rs 200/- per month as a stipend
On completion of training, they receive a working manual and a kit of simple medicines belonging to the modern & traditional systems of medicine
Duties:
- Treatment of simple ailments and activities in first aid
- Mother and child health including family planning
- Health education and sanitation
The target is to have one village health guide for each village or 1000 rural population

Question 4. Voluntary health agencies in India.
Answer:

Voluntary health agencies in India

It may be defined as an organization that is administered by an autonomous board that holds meetings, collects funds for its support chiefly from private sources and pends money, whether with or without paid workers, in conducting a program directed primarily to furthering the public health by providing health services or health education, or by advancing research or legislation for health, or by a combination of these activities

Functions:

Supplementing the work of government agencies
Education
Demonstration
Guarding the work of government Agencies
Advancing Health Legislation

Health Care Delievery System Agencies

Question 5. World Health Organization.
Answer:

World health organization

World Health Organization is a specialized, largest, non-political most prominent, self-governing, influential, multilateral health agency of Strengthens training of various categories of oral health
United Nations with headquarters in Geneva
World Health Organization came into force on 7th April 1948

Health organization Membership:

Health organization Membership is open to all countries

Health organization Work:

Prevention and control of specific diseases
- Development of comprehensive health services
- Family Health
- Environmental Health
- Health statistics
- Bio-medical research
- Health literature and information
- Co-operation with other organizations

Health organization Structure:

The World Health Assembly
- The Executive Board
- The Secretariat

Health organization Who Agenda:

Promoting development
- Fostering health security
- Strengthening health systems
- Harnessing research, information and evidence
- Enhancing partnership
- Improving performance

Health organization Who Journals:

Bulletin of the World Health Organization
- Weekly Epidemiological Record
- WHO Drug Information

Question 6. Importance of national oral health policy.
Answer:

Importance of National Oral Health Policy

It creates awareness about health problems and means to solve them
It supplies safe drinking water and basic sanitation
Concentrates on rural healthcare
Supports health planning and health program implementation
Provide support to health protection and promotion
Act on widespread malnutrition
Research healthcare delivery
Creates greater coordination of different systems of medicine
Resolves preventive and promotive oral health services
Strengthens training of various categories of oral health care personnel care personnel
Ensure statutory warning on the wrappers and advertisement of sweets, chocolates and other sugar retentive items
Guide oral health research appropriate to the needs of the country.

Health Care Delivery System Short Question And Answers

Question 1. International Red Cross.
Answer:

International red cross

The International Red Cross is a non-political, non-official international humanitarian organization devoted to the service of mankind. In China, community participation is in the form of peace and war
International red cross was founded by Henry Dunant in 1859
Dunant organized local people to bind the soldiers’ wounds and to feed and comfort them during the bloody battle in Solferino, Italy between the armies of imperial Austria and the Franco-Sardinian alliance
Its emblem was a red cross on a white background

Principles:

Humanity
Impartiality
Neutrality
Independence
Voluntary service
Unity
Universality

Question 2. Functions of primary health center.
Answer:

Functions of Primary Health Center

Medical care
Maternal and child health including family planning
Safe water supply and basic sanitation
Prevention and control of locally endemic disease
Collecting and reporting vital statistics
Education about health.

Question 3. Community participation.
Answer:

Community participation

The community must be involved in the planning, implementation, and maintenance of health services
The involvement of individuals, families, and communities in the promotion of their health and welfare is an essential component of public health center
In China, community participation is in the form of bare-foot doctors
In India, village health guides and local dais provide public health care by overcoming cultural and communication barriers

Question 4. Work of WHO.
Answer:

Work of WHO

Prevention and control of specific diseases
Development of comprehensive health services
Family Health
Environmental Health
Health statistics
Bio-medical research
Health literature & information
Co-operation with other organizations

Question 5. National health program.
Answer:

National health program

National Malaria Eradication Programme
National Filaria Control Programme
National Tuberculosis Programme
National Leprosy Eradication Programme
Diarrhoeal Diseases Control Programme
STD Control Programme
National Programme for Control of Blindness
Iodine Deficiency Disorder Programme
Universal Immunization Programme
National Family Welfare Programme

Question 6. Elements of primary health centers.
Answer:

Elements of Primary Health Centers

The Alma Ata declaration has outlined 8 essential components of primary healthcare
Education about prevailing health problems and meth- Co-operation with other organizations ods of preventing and controlling them
Promotion of food supply and proper nutrition
An adequate supply of safe water and basic sanitation
Maternal and child health care including family planning
Immunization against infectious diseases
Prevention and control of endemic diseases
Appropriate treatment of common diseases and injuries
Provision of essential drugs

Question 7. Recommendations of the Bhore committee.
Answer:

Recommendations of the Bhore Committee

Integration of preventive and curative services to all administrative levels
Development of primary health centers in 2 stages
1. As short-term measure
2. As a long-term program
  - Major changes in medical education which includes 3 months of training in preventive and social medicine to prepare social physicians

Question 8. World health organization
Answer:

World health organization

World Health Organization is a specialized, largest, non-political most prominent, self-governing, influential, multilateral health agency of the United Nations with headquarters in Geneva
World Health Organization came into force on 7th April 1948

health organization Membership

Health organization Membership is open to all countries

health organization Work

Prevention and control of specific disease
Development of comprehensive health services
Family Health
Environmental Health
Bio-medical research
Health literature and information
Co-operation with other organizations

health organization Structure

The World Health Assembly
The executive board
The Secretariat

Health Care Delivery System Viva Voce

Health care services to be shared equally by all people ensures the principle of equitable distribution.
The village health guide Scheme was introduced on 2nd October 1977
Kasturba Memorial Fund is raised with the main objective of improving women
Indian Red Cross Society was established in 1920.
The functioning of voluntary health agencies involves pioneering new procedures
Gram Sevikas are an integral component of the Kasturba Memorial fund
India falls into the WHO regional organization of Southeast Asia region
The International Red Cross was founded by Henry Dunant
The headquarters of the Family Planning Association of India is located in Bombay

Fluorides Question And Answers

November 4, 2024July 21, 2023 by divya

Fluorides Definition

Water Fluoridation

Water Fluoridation is defined as the upward adjustment of the concentration of fluoride ions in a public water supply in such a way that the concentration of fluoride ions in the water may be consistently maintained at one part per million by weight to prevent dental caries with minimum possibility of causing dental fluorosis

Topical Fluorides

Topical Fluorides are used to describe those delivery systems that provide fluoride for a local chemical reaction to exposed surfaces of the erupted dentition

Defluoridation

Defluoridation is the process of removing excess naturally occurring fluoride from drinking water in order to reduce the prevalence and severity of dental fluorosis

Fluorides Important Notes

1. Fluoride Varnishes

They maintain fluoride ions in intimate contact with enamel for longer periods
Commonly used are
- Duraphat – fluoride concentration is 22600 ppm
- Fluor protector – fluoride concentration is 7000 ppm
Duraphat is the first fluoride varnish
Fluoride varnish was first developed in Europe by Schmidt
Varnishes increase the time of contact between enamel surface and topical fluoride agents favoring the deposition of more permanently bound fluorapatite.

2. Fluoride Concentration

In community water fluoridation – 0.7-1.2 ppm
In-school water fluoridation – 3.5-4.5 ppm

Read And Learn More: Percentive Communitive Dentistry Question And Answers

3. Sodium Fluoride NaF

NaF mouthrinses commonly used are
- 0.2% NaF containing 99 ppm fluoride, for weekly use
- 0.05% NaF containing 225 ppm of fluoride, for daily use
When NaF is applied to the tooth surface, there is the formation of CaF
This initial rapid reaction is followed by a drastic reduction in its rate and the phenomenon is called “choking off

3. APF (Acidulated Phosphate Fluoride)

APF solution/ Brudevold’s solution is prepared by dissolving 20 gms of NaF in 1 liter of 0.1 M phosphoric acid and to this 50% hydrofluoric acid is added to adjust pH 3 and fluoride ion concentration at 1.23%
APF gel is prepared by adding gelling agents like methylcellulose and hydroxyl ethyl cellulose and pH is adjusted between 4-5
APF is most commonly used in dental clinics
Thixotropic gels are another form of APF gel with identical properties of APF.
APF denotes a solution that sets in a gel-like state
On application of pressure, thixotropic gels behave like a solution
They are more easily forced into the interproximal areas

4. Solution And Their Application

Fluorides Solution and their application

5. Snf

So it requires fresh solutions to be prepared for each patient
8% SnF contains 19500 ppm of fluoride
The pH of the freshly prepared solution is 2.5 and after that, it increases to 7.
When SnF is applied in low concentration, tin-hydroxy-phosphate is formed, which gets dissolved in oral fluids and is responsible for the metallic taste after topical supplication of stannous fluoride
At very high concentrations, calcium tri-fluoro-stannate gets formed along with tin-tri-fluorophosphate
The tin-tri-fluorophosphate is responsible for making the tooth structure more stable and less susceptible to decay
Calcium fluoride is the end product
Snf reacts with hydroxyapatite and a small fraction of fluor hydroxyapatite also gets formed

6. Milk Fluoridation

Introduced by Zeigler in the Swiss city of Winterthur in 1953
In 1971, Dr. Edgar Borrow established the Borrow Foundation for the use of milk fluoridation
The first community-based milk fluoridation scheme was introduced in 19898, in Bulgaria

7. Salt Fluoridation

Switzerland was the first country to adopt salt fluoridation
The recommended level of fluoride to be added is 1.5 mg/5 gm of salt

8. Fluoride Toxicity

In acute fluoride toxicity, orally soluble calcium in the form of milk calcium gluconate, or calcium lactate solution is given
Crippling fluorosis is seen in several forms of dental and skeletal fluorosis when the water fluoride level is more than 8 ppm or more
In it, the spine becomes rigid and joints stiffen, virtually immobilizing the patient

9. Fluoride Tablets

Available in 0.55,1.1,2.2 mg tablets containing 0.25 mg, 0.5mg, 1 mg of fluoride
Below 18 months of age, fluoride tablets are not given since the child cannot swallow

10. Nalgonda Technique

Nalgonda Technique is a defluoridation technique
Nalgonda Technique was developed by the National Environmental Engineering Research Institute at Nagpur in 1961.
Useful in both domestic and community water supplies
Involves the addition of aluminate or lime, bleaching powder, and filter alum to fluoride water
Alumina is an important component

11. Daily recommended dose of fluoride

Fluorides Daily recommended dose of fluoride

Fluorides Long Essays

Question 1. Describe the anticancer mechanism of fluoride on teeth, and discuss the self-applied fluoride.
(or) Acute fluoride toxicity.
Answer:

Anticaries Mechanism Of Fluoride:

1. Increased Enamel Resistance/ Reduction In Enamel Solubility

Dental caries involves the dissolution of enamel by acid formation
This dissolution is inhibited by fluoride as the fluoride forms fluorapatite which reduces enamel solubility
Fluoride reduces enamel solubility also by promoting the precipitation of hydroxyapatite and phosphate mineral
Fluoride inhibits demineralization by
Reducing bacterial acid production
Reducing equilibrium solubility of apatite
By fluoridation of apatite crystal

2. Increased Rate of post-eruptive maturation

Newly erupted teeth have hypomineralised areas and the enamel surface is also prone to dental caries
Fluoride increases the rate of mineralization in these areas
Organic material is also deposited over the enamel surface which increases its resistance to dental caries

3. Remineralization of incipient lesions

Fluoride enhances remineralization by the deposition of minerals into the damaged areas
This reduces enamel solubility through the growth of crystals which are more resistant to acid
Fluoride enhances remineralization from calcium phosphate solution by the formation of calcium fluoride which prevents hydroxyapatite crystal growth

4. Interference With micro-organisms

In two ways
In high concentrations- bacteriocidal
By reducing plaque
In low concentrations- bacteriostatic
Inhibits enzymes responsible for acid metabolism

5. Modification in tooth morphology

If fluoride is ingested during tooth development it results in the formation of
More caries-resistant tooth
A tooth with smaller and shallow fissures
Smaller diameter and cusp depth
All these make them more self-cleansing

Anticaries Mechanism Of Fluoride Self-Applied Fluorides:

1. Dentrifices:

Fluoride compounds in dentifrices
Sodium fluoride
Stannous fluoride
Mono fluorophosphate
Amine fluoride

Anticaries Mechanism Of Fluoride Indications:

Dental caries prevention
Caries risk patient
Desensitization

Anticaries Mechanism Of Fluoride Mechanism:

Monofluorophosphate gets deposited in the crystalline lattice and intra- crystalline transposition
Fluoride is released
This replaces the hydroxyl group to form fluorapatite
Mono fluorophosphate may exchange with the phosphate group in apatite crystals

Recommendation:

Fluorides Recommendation

Anticaries Mechanism Of Fluoride Adverse Effects:

Detergents and flavoring agents
- Irritate stomach
- Cause vomiting
Abrasive
- Interfere with complete intestinal absorption of fluoride
Regular ingestion of fluoride by children < 6 years
- Dental fluorosis

2. Mouth Rinses:

As described by Bibby et al in 1946

Anticaries Mechanism Of Fluoride Contra-Indications:

Children less than 6 years of age
Persons with problems in oro-facial musculature due to which they cannot rinse

Sodium Fluoride Mouth Rinses:

Formulated at
- 0.2% concentration- for weekly use
- 0.05% concentration- for daily use
Preparation
- Prepared by dissolving 200 mg sodium fluoride tablet in 5 teaspoons of fresh clean water
- Sodium Fluoride Mouth Rinses can be used for 4 members (2 adults and 2 children)

Anticaries Mechanism Of Fluoride Mechanism:

Fluoride forms fluorapatite from hydroxyapatite
Fluoride inhibits bacterial metabolism and plaque acid formation

Anticaries Mechanism Of Fluoride Indications:

If the concentration of fluoride in drinking water is 0.3 ppm or less
Patients with increased caries risk
School fluoride programs Advantages:
30-40% reduction in caries incidence

Anticaries Mechanism Of Fluoride Gels:

Anticaries Mechanism Of Fluoride Include:

Neutral sodium fluoride and acidulated phosphate fluoride with a fluoride concentration of 5000 ppm
Stannous fluoride with a concentration of 1000 ppm

Anticaries Mechanism Of Fluoride Method of Use:

Brushing for 1 minute with the gel
Placing several drops in each tray and hold in contact with the teeth for 5 minutes

Anticaries Mechanism Of Fluoride Disadvantages:

Violate the principle of delivering low concentrations of fluoride
Cause fluoride toxicity
Tedious to use

Question 2. Classify the various fluoride delivery methods in dentistry. Write in detail about the preparation, application and recommended age groups in Knutson’s technique.
(or) Knutson’s technique.
Answer:

Fluoride Delivery Methods:

Topical fluoride
Placed directly on the teeth
Systemic fluoride
Circulate through the bloodstream and are incorporated into developing teeth

Knutson’s Technique:

Knutson’s Technique Preparation:

Prepared by dissolving 20 grams of sodium fluoride powder in one liter of distilled water
Knutson’s Technique is stored in a plastic container as the fluoride may react with the silica of glass forming silicon fluoride, thus reducing the availability of free active fluoride

Knutson’s Technique Method Of Application:

Initial appointment
- Cleaning and polishing of teeth
- Isolating with cotton rolls
- Drying with compressed air
- Using a cotton-tipped applicator stick, the 2% sodium fluoride solution is painted on dried teeth
- Allow to dry the solution for 3-4 minutes
- Repeat for each quadrant
- Instruct patient to avoid eating, drinking, or rinsing for 30 minutes
- 2nd, 3rd and 4th appointments are given at weekly appointments

Recommended Age:

Fluorides Recommended age

Question 3. Define water fluoridation. Discuss the feasibility of community water fluoridation in India.
Answer:

Fluoridation in India Definition:

Fluoridation in India is defined as the upward adjustment of the concentration of fluoride ions in a public water supply in such a way that the concentration of fluoride ions in the water may be consistently maintained at one part per million by weight to prevent dental caries with minimum possibility of causing dental fluorosis

Fluoridation in India Feasibility:

The water fluoridation procedure is feasible only if
- There is a municipal water supply reaching a reasonable number of homes
- People drink this water rather than water from individual wells or tanks
- Suitable equipment is present
- Supply of fluoride is assured
- Workers are available
- Money should be available

Question 4. Describe the mechanism of action of fluoride. Add a note on the toxicity of fluoride.
Answer:

Toxicity Of Fluoride:

Toxicity Of Fluoride Acute Toxicity

Results from rapid excessive ingestion of fluoride at one time
Symptoms
- Nausea, vomiting, diarrhea
- Abdominal cramps
- Increased salivation
- Dehydration o Thirst
- After 2-4 hours
  - Fatality
- Death due to
  - Blockage of normal cellular metabolism
  - Cardiac failure
  - Respiratory paralysis
- If a death has not occurred after 24 hours, the prognosis is good

Toxicity Of Fluoride Pathological Changes:

Oral corrosive changes
- Hemorrhagic stomach contents
- Changes in intestine

Toxicity Of Fluoride Management:

Administration of milk or egg
Lime water
Aluminum hydroxide gels
Inducing vomiting

Toxicity Of Fluoride Dental Fluorosis:

Due to long-term ingestion of smaller amounts

Fluorides Chronic toxicity

Toxicity Of Fluoride Dental Fluorosis:

Toxicity Of Fluoride Mottled Enamel

Presence of hypoplastic areas
Mottled areas may stain yellow/ brown
Fluoride occurs symmetrically within dental areas, commonly affecting premolars

Toxicity Of Fluoride Skeletal Fluorosis:

Severe pain in
- Backbones
- Joints
- Hips
Stiffness in joints and spine
Knock-knee syndrome
- Outward bending of legs and hands
- Damage to fetus
- Blocking and calcification of blood vessels
- Cripping fluorosis

Toxicity Of Fluoride Effect On Kidney:

Mav aggravates renal disease

Question 5. Define community water fluoridation and the requirements for community water fluoridation.
Answer:

Community Water fluoridation Requirements:

The equipment must be adapted to local conditions and needs of the water network
Equipment must be efficient, safe, and precise
Equipment should have well-defined precision limits
It should be of standard type
Equipment should be provided with the safety mechanism
Adjustment of the distribution must be sufficient, easy and rapid
The apparatus should operate between 20-80% of its total capacity
In each fluoridation system, an antisiphon mechanism should be installed in the pipes
Maintenance and control
- The fluoridation system must be carefully maintained
- A sufficient quantity of spare parts should be available
Control at the water treatment plant
- Regular monitoring of water supplies is essential
- A uniform concentration of fluoride ions should be maintained
- Analysis should be made several times in a day
Control of the quality of analysis
- The corresponding authority should send 3 “blind” samples each month for analysis and returned within 48 hours
Control of the quality of water in the network
- Samples are taken from the distribution network once a week and send for analysis
Control of the quality of fluoride used
- Samples should be analyzed every time the delivery of fluoride is received

Community Water fluoridation Equipment Used:

Saturation system
Dry feeder
Solution feeder
Venture fluoridator system
Saturation-suspension cone

Community Water fluoridation Fluoride Used:

Sodium fluoride
Fluorspar
Silicon fluoride
Sodium silicofluoride
Hydrofluosilicic acid
Ammonium silicofluoride

Question 6. Define topical fluoride. Describe in detail the method of preparation, application, mechanism of action, and advantages and disadvantages of Mahler’s solution.
(or) Stannous fluoride.
Answer:

Topical Fluoride Definition:

Topical Fluoride is used to describe those delivery systems that provide fluoride for a local chemical reaction to exposed surfaces of the erupted dentition

Topical Fluoride Definition Mahler’s Solution:

Topical Fluoride Definition Preparation:

0.8 grams of stannous fluoride is dissolved in 10 ml of distilled water in a plastic container
The solution thus prepared is shaken briefly
The solution is then applied immediately to the teeth

Topical Fluoride Definition Application:

Cleaning and polishing of tooth surfaces
Isolating the teeth with cotton rolls
Drying with compressed air
The freshly prepared solution is painted over the tooth surface
The solution is allowed to dry for 4 minutes
Repeat applications are made every 6 months or more

Topical Fluoride Definition Mechanism Of Action:

At low concentration
- Hydroxyphosphate is formed
- This gets dissolved in oral fluids
At very high concentration
- Calcium tri-fluorostannate gets formed along with tin tri-fluorophosphate
- Tin tri-fluorophosphate makes the tooth structure more stable and less susceptible to decay
Calcium fluoride is the end product of both
Topical Fluoride further reacts with hydroxyapatite and a small amount of fluor hydroxyapatite also gets formed

Topical Fluoride Definition Advantages:

Application required only once per year
Conforms to the practicing dentist’s usual patient recall system

Topical Fluoride Definition Disadvantages:

Material is not stable in aqueous solution
Has to be prepared freshly every time
Metallic taste
Causes a reversible tissue irritation
Causes pigmentation of teeth occasionally

Question 7. Define water fluoridation. Describe various methods of systemic administration of fluoride for the prevention of dental caries.
Answer:

Systemic Fluorides:

Systemic Fluorides Consist Of The:

1. Water Fluoridation:

Water Fluoridation is the most common form of systemic fluoride administration
Water Fluoridation constitutes of addition of fluoride to public water supplies.
The optimal level of fluoride in water for protection against dental caries is approximately 1 ppm

Systemic Fluorides Equipment Used:

Saturation system
Dry feeder
Solution feeder
Venture fluoridator system
Saturation-suspension cone

Systemic Fluorides Fluoride Used:

Sodium fluoride
Fluorspar
Silicon fluoride
Sodium silicofluoride
Hydrofluosilicic acid
Ammonium silicofluoride

2. Milk Fluoridation:

Milk is an excellent source of calcium and phosphorous
Milk Fluoridation contains all the essentials for the development of bone and teeth
Milk fluoridation was first mentioned by Ziegler in 1956

Systemic Fluorides Rationale:

The nutritional value of milk has been well-documented
Provide a cost-effective and convenient vehicle
All forms of milk products are suitable
Can be targeted to those in greatest need
The bioavailability of fluoride is not reduced by milk
It keeps a permanently low level of ionized fluoride within the oral cavity promoting remineralization
The confirmed dual action of fluoride: topical and systemic
Greater preventive effect

Systemic Fluorides Advantages:

Staple food for children and infants

Systemic Fluorides Disadvantages:

The cost would be considerably higher
A centralized milk supply should exist
Variation in intake and quantity of milk

3. Salt fluoridation:

Introduced in Switzerland in 1955

Systemic Fluorides Method of Preparation:

Fluoride is added to salt by spraying concentrated solutions of sodium fluoride and potassium fluoride on salt on a conveyor belt
Sodium fluoride and calcium fluoride are first mixed with slightly moist salt or mixed with a flow conditioner such as tri-calcium phosphate and this pre-mixed granule are added to the dry salt

Systemic Fluorides Advantages:

Minimal fluorosis
Safe
Economic
Freely available
Easy to monitor
Effective to supply
Readily accepted

Systemic Fluorides Disadvantages:

No precise control
Sodium can cause hypertension

4. Fluoride Tablets/ Drops/ Lozenges:

Fluoride tablets/ drops/ lozenges may be prescribed to individual patients or may be part of a school or home-based public health preventive dentistry program

Systemic Fluorides Fluoride Used:

Sodium fluoride
APF
Potassium fluoride
Calcium fluoride

Systemic Fluorides Dosage:

Systemic Fluorides Age

6 months-3 years- 0.25 gms
3-6 years – 0.25-0.5 gms
6-16 years- 0.5-1 grams

Fluorides

Fluorides Short Essays

Question 1. APFgel.
Answer:

APFgel Method Of Preparation:

APFgel is prepared by dissolving 20 gms of sodium fluoride in 1 liter of 0.1 M phosphoric acid
Followed by the addition of 50% hydrofluoric acid
A gelling agent methylcellulose or hydroxyethyl cellulose is added to the solution

APFgel Application:

Oral prophylaxis
Isolate the teeth
Dry the teeth
Apply APF solution by loading in a tray
Maintain it for 4 minutes

APFgel Frequency:

Twice a year

APFgel Mechanism Of Action:

On applying APF gel it leads to dehydration and shrinkage in the volume of hydroxyapatite crystals
Formation of dicalcium phosphate dehydrate
Fluoride penetrates the crystals
This leads to the formation of fluorapatite

Question 2. School water fluoridation.
Answer:

School water fluoridation

Initiated as a pilot study in 1954 at St. Thomas Virgin Islands, United States
It is used only if the surrounding areas from which the students come have a low fluoride content
The concentration of fluoride in the school water is 4.5 ppm in contrast to 1 ppm of the community water supply
This is to compensate for the reduced water intake

School Water Fluoridation Advantages:

About 40% of reduction in DMFT was observed
No effort is required by the recipient
Effective public health measure
Target population-school children
Quite economical

School Water Fluoridation Limitations:

Need for cooperation from school authorities
Children may not attend all school days
There is intermittent fluoride exposure
Limited pre-eruptive benefits to primary teeth
Possible confrontation by antifluoridation groups
The cost of installation, supplies and maintenance compete with other needs of the school budget
Custodial and backup personnel are required to be trained

Question 3. Topical fluoride.
Answer:

Topical Fluoride Definition:

It is used to describe those delivery systems that provide fluoride for a local chemical reaction to exposed surfaces of the erupted dentition

Topical Fluoride Indication:

Caries active individual
Children shortly after tooth eruption
Those who take medication that reduces salivary flow
After periodontal surgery
Patients with fixed or removable prosthesis
Patients with eating disorders
Mentally and physically challenged individual

Classification Of Topical Fluoride:

Professionally applied products
Dispensed by a dental professional
It includes
- Sodium fluoride
  - Minimum 4 applications with 2% give caries reduction of about 30%
- Stannous fluoride
- Used as 8% concentration
- Acidulated phosphate fluoride gel
- Fluoride varnishes
  - Duraphat
  - floor protector
Composition
- It is a dichlorosilane-ethyl difluoro hydroxy silane
- Fluoride content is 22.6 mg F/ ml
Self-administered
- Fluoride dentifrices
- Sodium fluoride
- Fluoride mouth rinses
- Dentrifices containing monofluorophosphate

Question 4. Defluoridation.
Answer:

Defluoridation

Defluoridation is the process of removing excess naturally occurring fluoride from drinking water in order to reduce the prevalence and severity of dental fluorosis

Defluoridation Methods:

Defluoridation Ion Exchange Resins:

Carbon
- Carbon is a cation exchange resin of good durability and can be used on sodium and hydrogen cycles
Defluoron
- A sulfonated sawdust impregnated with 2% alum solution
Defluoron 2
- Defluoron 2 is a sulfonated coal using the aluminum solution as a regenerate

Defluoridation Nalgonda Technique:

This technique was developed in India in 1975
By National Environmental Engineering Research Institute
Defluoridation Nalgonda was constructed in the district of Nalgonda in Andhra Pradesh in the town of Kathri

Defluoridation Procedure:

Raw water is collected in a tank
Add alum solution to it
Next, depending on alkalinity and lime
Stir gently for 10 minutes
Results in the formation of floes
Allow it to settle

Defluoridation Advantages

Can be used at domestic and community levels
Manually operated
Cost-effective
Defluoridation meets with standards laid down by the Bureau of Indian Standard

Question 5. Milk fluoridation.
Answer:

Milk fluoridation

Milk is an excellent source of calcium and phosphorous
It contains all the essentials for the development of bone and teeth
Milk fluoridation was first mentioned by Ziegler in 1956

Milk Fluoridation Rationale:

The nutritional value of milk has been well-documented
Provide a cost-effective and convenient vehicle
All forms of milk products are suitable
Can be targeted to those in greatest need
The bioavailability of fluoride is not reduced by milk
It keeps a permanently low level of ionized fluoride within the oral cavity promoting remineralization
The confirmed dual action of fluoride: topical and systemic
Greater preventive effect

Milk Fluoridation Advantages:

Staple food for children and infants

Milk Fluoridation Disadvantages:

The cost would be considerably higher
A centralized milk supply should exist
Variation in intake and quantity of milk

Question 6. Shoe leather survey.
Answer:

Shoe leather survey

Conducted by Dr. H Trendley Dean
It was conducted in 97 localities
It was done with the help of questionnaires
During this survey, Trendley Dean visited each and every house in that particular community
He traced the dental status of 7000 children who drank naturally fluoridated water

Shoe Leather Survey AIM:

To find the level of fluoride at which the tooth starts to blemish

Shoe Leather Survey Report:

In 1943, he reported that the ideal amount of fluoride was 1 ppm of water
This concentration was demonstrated to result in healthy, attractive teeth that had l/3rd as many cavities as might otherwise be expected and no staining

Question 7. Fluoride varnishes.
Answer:

Fluoride Varnishes Commonly Used:

Duraphat
Fluorprotector

Fluoride Varnishes Composition:

Fluoride Varnishes Composition is a dichlorosilane-ethyl difluoro hydroxy silane
Fluoride content is 22.6 mg F/ ml

Fluoride Varnishes Application

Oral prophylaxis
Dry the teeth
Apply varnish with a single tufted small brush first on the lower arch and then on the upper
Maintain it for 4 minutes
Avoid rinsing, drinking, eating for 1 hour

Fluoride Varnishes Dose:

0.5 ml of dura phat containing 11.3 mg F fluoride
0.5 ml of floor protector containing 3.1 mg F fluoride

Fluoride Varnishes Mechanism Of Action:

On application of varnish, results in a reservoir of fluoride ions around the enamel
Results in deeper penetration of fluoride and formation of fluorapatite

Fluorides Short Answers

Question 1. Colorado Stains.
Answer:

Colorado Stains

The history of fluoridation started with the contribution of Dr. Frederick McKay
He arrived in Colorado Springs, Colorado, USA in 1901
He noticed that many of his patients, particularly those who had lived in the area all their lives, had an apparently permanent stain on their teeth which was known to the local inhabitants as “Colorado Stains”
He called the stain “mottled enamel” and said that it was characterized by minute white flecks or yellow or brown spots or areas, scattered irregularly
Or streaked over the surface of a tooth or
Colorado Stains may be a condition where the entire tooth surface is of a dead paper-white, like the color of a china dish

Question 2. Fluoridated Salt.
Answer:

Fluoridated Salt

Introduced in Switzerland in 1955

Fluoridated Salt Method Of Preparation:

Fluoride is added to salt by spraying concentrated solutions of sodium fluoride and potassium fluoride on salt on a conveyor belt
Sodium fluoride and calcium fluoride are first mixed with slightly moist salt or mixed with a flow conditioner such as tri-calcium phosphate and these pre-mixed granules are added to the dry salt

Fluoridated Salt Advantages:

Minimal fluorosis
Safe
Economic
Freely available
Easy to monitor
Effective to supply
Readily accepted

Fluoridated Salt Disadvantages:

No precise control
Sodium can cause hypertension

Question 3. Nalgonda technique.
Answer:

Nalgonda technique

Method of defluoridation
This technique is developed in India in 1975
By National Environmental Engineering Research Institute
Nalgonda was constructed in the district of Nalgonda in Andhra Pradesh in the town of Kathri

Nalgonda Technique Procedure:

Raw water is collected in a tank
Add alum solution to it
Next, depending on alkalinity and lime
Stir gently for 10 minutes
Results in the formation of floes
Allow it to settle

Nalgonda Technique Advantages:

Can be used at domestic and community levels
Manually operated
Cost-effective
Nalgonda meets with standards laid down by the Bureau of Indian Standard

Question 4. Optimum levels of fluoride.
Answer:

Optimum levels of fluoride

The optimum level of fluoride in water in a temperate climate is 1 ppm
For warmer and colder climates the amount can be adjusted from approximately 0.7 ppm to 1.2 ppm
Optimum levels of fluoride is adapted according to the water consumed

Question 5. Chemical properties of fluoride.
Answer:

Chemical properties of fluoride

Fluoride is a compound of fluorine with a metal
Chemical properties of fluoride is an anion, the reduced form of fluorine
Chemical properties of fluoride is a monovalent ion
The solution of inorganic fluoride in water contains fluorine and fluorine ion
Few inorganic fluorines are soluble in water
Fluorides are more strongly solvated
Fluoride is effective in preventing tooth decay
Fluoride tends to be dangerous only in large doses

Question 6. Requirements of community water fluoridation.
Answer:

Requirements of community water fluoridation

The equipment must be adapted to local conditions and needs of the water network
Equipment must be efficient, safe and precise
Equipment should have well-defined precision limits
It should be of standard type
Equipment should be provided with a safety mechanism
Adjustment of the distribution must be sufficient, easy and rapid
The apparatus should operate between 20-80% of its total capacity
In each fluoridation system, an antisiphon mechanism should be installed in the pipes
Maintenance and control
The fluoridation system must be carefully maintained
A sufficient quantity of spare parts should be available
Control at the water treatment plant
Regular monitoring of water supplies is essential
A uniform concentration of fluoride ions should be maintained
Analysis should be made several times in a day
Control of the quality of analysis
The corresponding authority should send 3 “blind” samples each month for analysis and returned within 48 hours
Control of the quality of water in the network
Samples are taken from the distribution network once a week and send for analysis
Control of the quality of fluoride used
Samples should be analyzed every time the delivery of

Question 7. Choking off effect.
Answer:

Choking off effect

When NaF is applied to the tooth surface, there is the formation of CaF
This initial rapid reaction is followed by a drastic reduction in its rate and the phenomenon is called “choking off

Fluorides Viva Voce

The relative atomic weight of fluorine is 19
The concentration of fluoride in human milk is 15-20 mg/1
Bone is a major route of fluoride absorption
Dr. McKay coined the term mottled enamel for fluorosis
Dental fluorosis was termed denti di chiaie by Dr J.M. Eager
The element fluoride was identified as a factor responsible for mottled enamel in 1931
22 cities study conducted by Dr. Trendley H Dean determined the extent and severity of mottled enamel
The inverse relationship of dental caries and mottled enamel was given by Trendley H Dean
The world’s first artificial fluoridation plant was set up in Grand Rapids.
Dean proposed that fluoridating water supplies by 1 ppm of fluoride reduces dental caries by 60%
The kidney has the highest concentration of plasma fluoride level
The renal clearance of fluoride in the adult ranges from 30-60 ml/minute
Plasma fluoride concentration is lowest in the brain
Anti cariogenic effect of fluoride is rendered by interference with micro-organisms
The maximum loss of fluoride from tooth structure is due to tooth wear
Fluoride toothpaste is the best method for topical fluoridation in school children
Salt fluoridation is a method of choice if water fluoridation is not feasible
Fluoride toothpaste is recommended at night time because it is a fluoride reservoir
The maximum plasma concentration of fluoride after fluoride ingestion reaches upto 0.20 ppm
8 ppm of fluoride causes skeletal fluorosis
Knutson’s technique for 3 years inhibits caries by about 35%
Fluoride acts on enolase enzyme to render anticaries effect
Fluoride remains on the tooth surface after dura phat application for up to 12 hours
The application of sodium fluoride solution is called Knutson’s technique
The aqueous solution of topical fluoride is continuously reapplied for 4 minutes
The amount of fluoride present in fluoride varnish is 22600 ppm
Fluoride varnishes are applied once in six months
Knutson’s technique is recommended for the age of 3, 7,11, and 13 years
APF solution is also known as Brudevold solution
Fluoride rendered by APF solution is 12300 ppm
123% APF can reduce dental caries by about 66%
A 0.05% concentration of sodium fluoride mouth rinses is recommended for daily use
Children under six years of age are contraindicated for the use of fluoride rinses
Certainly, the lethal dose of fluoride is 32-64 mg of fluoride per kg of body weight
Safety tolerated dose of fluoride for a 70 kg adult is 8 16 mg F/kg body weight
Abdominal pain is the first sign of acute fluoride toxicity
The premolar is the most commonly affected tooth by fluorosis
A combination of fluoride, calcium, and vitamin D results in increased wall thickness of osteoblasts
Fluoride toothpaste is not safe for children of about 2-4 years of age
Fluoride toothpaste is recommended twice a day in mixed dentition period
Fluoride dentifrices can inhibit caries up to 35%
Water fluoridation is the most economical method for caries prevention in urban areas
The consumption of 1.5 ppm fluoridated water can result in fluorosis after 10-15 years
In fluoride toxicity drug of choice is calcium chloride
Cardiac failure is the cause of death in acute toxicity of fluoride
4.5 to 6.3 ppm is the recommended level for school water fluoridation
The second stage of the Nalgonda technique is flocculation
Ziegler introduced milk fluoridation
Permanent teeth have higher fluoride levels than primary teeth because of the long pre-eruptive maturation period
30% of hydrogen peroxide is required to bleach fluorosis teeth
The Nalgonda technique is a defluoridation technique
The use of fluoride varnishes reduces the number of patient’s visit
Post secretory phase and early mineralization phase are the critical periods for fluorosis.

Community Dentistry Miscellaneous Short And Long Essay Question And Answers

November 11, 2024July 21, 2023 by divya

Miscellaneous Short Essays

Question 1. Odds ratio.
Answer:

Odds Ratio Definition:

Odds Ratio is a measure of the strength of the association between risk factors and outcome

Odds Ratio It Is Based On:

The disease being investigated must be relatively rare. Example: Chronic disease
The cases must be representative of those with the disease
The controls must be representative of those without the disease

Miscellaneous Odds ratio

Odds Ratio Example:

If the odd’s ratio is 6.2- means the risk of oral cancer was 6.2 times greater in individuals in tobacco chewers than in non-chewers

Read And Learn More: Percentive Communitive Dentistry Question And Answers

Question 2. Tristan de Cunhan study.
Answer:

Tristan de Cunhan’s study

It is a small remote island in the South Atlantic inhabited by people of European descent
In the early 1960s volcanic eruption led to the evacuation of the entire community to England
After a few years, an improvement occurred and the region became habitable
Thus the people returned
Modern industries developed and processed food became easily available
Dental examination was carried out on an island in 1932, 1937 and 1953
In England in 1962
On an island in 1966
Results obtained are

Miscellaneous Tristan de cunhan study

Question 3. Functional appliances.
Answer:

Functional Appliances Definition:

Functional Appliances is defined as loose fitting/ passive appliances that harness natural forces of oro-facial musculature that are transmitted to teeth and alveolar bone

Classification Of Functional Appliances:

According to Tom Graber
Group A: teeth supported
Group B: teeth/ tissue supported
Group C: vestibular positioned
Based on use
Removable
Semi fixed
Fixed

Functional Appliances Uses:

Intercept and treat jaw discrepancies

Functional Appliances Changes That Occur:

Increase/ decrease jaw relationship
Change spatial jaw relationship
Changes direction of jaw growth
Accelerates desired growth

Commuinty Denstistry

Question 4. Diet counseling.
Answer:

Diet Counseling

Steps
Introduce diet dairy
24-hour diet record is prepared
A daily diet of dairy is advised
Analyse complete records
Isolating the sugar factors
Patients education
Consumption of sugar substitutes

Diet Counseling First Appointment:

A diet diary of 6 consecutive days is prepared
The form of particular food taken, its approximate amount along with snacks, candies, syrups, chewing gums consumption is recorded
Identify the sugar-containing food items
Mark such items with red Xs while others with blue Xs
Explain to the patient the harmful effects of sugar-containing substances and explain to decrease the red Xs items while increasing the blue Xs items
Teach him as a game
Suggest sugar substitutes like peanuts

Diet Counseling Recall Visits:

Recall appointments are carried out at regular intervals during the next months
During these visits evaluate the patient’s progress and provide reinforcement

Question 5. Interceptive orthodontics.
Answer:

Interceptive Orthodontics Definition:

Interceptive Orthodontics is that phase of the science and art of orthodontics employed to recognize and eliminate potential irregularities and malpositions of the developing dentofacial complex

Interceptive Orthodontics Procedures:

Serial Extraction
- Serial Extraction is the planned extraction of certain deciduous teeth and later specific permanent teeth in an orderly sequence and pre-determined pattern
- Developing anterior crossbite
- Treated to prevent minor orthodontic problems
Interception Of Habits
- Habits that are intercepted are
  - Thumb sucking
  - Tongue thrusting
  - Mouth breathing
Space Regaining
- Space lost by the mesial movement of the molar can be regained by distal movement of 1st molar
- Muscular exercise
- It helps to improve aberrant muscle function
- Interception of skeletal Malrelation
- To reduce the severity of the disease
- Removal of soft tissues and bony barriers

Question 6. Exfoliative cytology.
Answer:

Exfoliative Cytology

Refers to the removal of surface cells for cytological examination

Exfoliative Cytology Uses:

Exfoliative Cytology For Diagnosis:

Routine screening of patients with oral lesions and recurrent carcinoma

Exfoliative Cytology The Stains Used Are:

Papanicolaon stain

Question 7. Four-handed dentistry
Answer:

Four-Handed Dentistry

Four-handed dentistry is the term given to the art of seating both the dentist and the dental assistant in such a way that both are within easy reach of the patient’s mouth

Four-Handed Dentistry Process:

The patient is in a fully supine position
The assistant will hand the dentist the particular instrument he wants
Assistant can also perform functions like retraction or aspiration

Four-Handed Dentistry Advantages:

Dentists can completely keep their eyes on the field of operation
Less fatigue
Greater efficiency
Training Period Of Assistant:
One or two years

Question 8. Orofacial signs of sexual abuse.
Answer:

Orofacial Signs Of Sexual Abuse

Contusion
Laceration of
- Tongue
- Buccal mucosa
- Palate
- Alveolar mucosa
- Frenum
Fractured, displaced, or avulsed teeth
Facial bone and jaw fractures
Burns
Discolored teeth
Pulpal necrosis
Bruises
Lichenification
Scarring at the corners of the mouth

Question 9. Expert witness.
Answer:

Expert Witness

An expert witness is a witness who by education, training, skill, or experience is believed to have expertise and specialized knowledge in a particular subject
They are usually instructed to produce a joint statement detailing points of agreement and disagreement
They charge a professional fee which is paid by the party
They may be issued with a witness summon
They must be qualified on the topic of testimony
They may also deliver expert evidence

Expert Witness Expert Evidence:

Fingerprints
Blood analysis
DNA fingerprinting

Question 10. Quarantine.
Answer:

Quarantine Definition:

A period of time during which a vehicle, person, or material suspected of carrying a contiguous disease is detained at a port of entry under enforced isolation to prevent the disease from entering a country

It is used to separate and restrict the movement of good persons who may have been exposed to a communicable disease to see if they become ill
It can apply to humans as well as animals
Quarantine periods are very short

Quarantine Purpose:

Prevent the spread of contamination
To contain the contamination such that others are not put at risk

Question 11. Perjury.
Answer:

Perjury

A crime that occurs when an individual willfully makes a false statement during a judicial procedure after he/she has taken an oath to speak the truth

Perjury Basic Elements:

A false statement is made under oath during a judicial proceeding
The statement must be material or relevant to the proceeding
The witness must have the specific intent to deceive

Perjury Punishment:

Fine
Imprisonment
Both

Miscellaneous Short Question And Answers

Question 1. Positive health.
Answer:

Positive health

Positive health is the group of subjective, biological, and functional that increase health and illness target
Positive Health Indicator:
Positive health is one or a collection of questions that assess the presence of one / several aspects of health as more than the absence of disease or symptoms

Question 2. Sporadic.
Answer:

Sporadic

Sporadic means scattered about
The cases occur irregularly, haphazardly from time to time, and generally infrequently

Question 3. Gingival physiotherapy.
Answer:

Gingival physiotherapy Device used
- Toothbrush
- Rubber tip stimulator
- Interdental cleaning device
Gingival physiotherapy Effects
- Epithelial thickening
- Increased keratinization
- Increased mitotic activity

Question 4. Soil, Seed, and Sower.
Answer:

Soil, Seed and Sower

Soil, Seed and Sower is one of the principles of health education
According to it:
The people are the soil
Seeds: health facts- must be truthful
Sower: transmitting media- should be attractive, palatable, and acceptable

Question 5. Co-insurance.
Answer:

Co-insurance

Co-insurance is defined as ” an arrangement under which a carrier and the beneficiary are each liable for a share of the cost of the dental services provided”
Co-insurance means that the patient pays a percentage of the total cost of the treatment
V helps to keep the premium down
Example: The patient has to pay 20% of the cost of the treatment, and the remaining 80% will be paid by the insurance company

Question 6. Folk medicine.
Answer:

Folk medicine Definition:

Folk medicine is the treatment of disease or injury based on tradition, especially on oral tradition, often utilizing Indigenous plants as remedies

It refers to healing practices and ideas of body physiology and health preservation known to a limited segment of the population in a culture
It often coexists with formalized education-based and institutionalized systems of healing
Practices of folk medicine may be influenced by the formalized medical systems

Synonyms:

Traditional medicine
Alternative medicine

Question 7. Emporiatics.
Answer:

Emporiatics

Emporiatics is the specialty of travel medicine dealing with diseases that travelers can acquire especially in the tropics
Emporiatics deals with the prevention and management of health problems of international traveler
Example: traveler’s diarrhea
It comprises of
- Prevention
- Assistance
- Wilderness medicine
- Access to healthcare

Question 8. Standard of living.
Answer:

Standard of living

Standard of living refers to the level of wealth, comfort, material goods, and necessities available to a certain socioeconomic class
Standard of living is inherent subjective

Standard of living Factors Effecting:

Income
Quality and availability of employment
Poverty rate
Housing
Hours of work
Quality health care
Quality of education
Life expectancy
Incidence of disease
Cost of services
Environmental Quality

Question 9. Mores.
Answer:

Mores

They are norms or customs which express fundamental values of society
They are derived from the established practices of a society rather than from written laws
They consist of shared understandings about the kinds of behavior likely to evoke approval, disapproval, toleration, or sanction, within particular contexts

Question 10. Need for dental care.
Answer:

Need for dental care Types:

Normative need
- Normative is the requirement for care as determined by expert opinion
Felt need
- Felt is the requirement of care as determined by the patient or public
Expressed need
- Expressed arises out of attempts by members of the public to seek attention for their perceived needs

Need for dental care Approaches to Estimate Need:

Surveys of dental health status
Surveys of need for dental care using a questionnaire
Analyses of service or treatment records

Question 11. Accretion.
Answer:

Accretion

Accretion is a process where most of the fluoride is buried within the mineral crystallites during the period of crystal growth

Question 12. Census.
Answer:

Census

Census is the collection of information from all the individuals in a population
Census is the total process of collecting, completing and publishing demographic, economic and social data pertaining at a specified time or times to all persons in a community

Census Disadvantages:

Expensive
Time-consuming
Less accurate

Question 13. Primordial prevention.
Answer:

Primordial prevention

Primordial prevention is the prevention of the emergence or development of risk factors in countries or population groups in which they have not yet appeared
Primordial prevention is receiving special attention in the prevention of chronic diseases
In it, efforts are directed toward discouraging children from adopting harmful lifestyles
The main intervention in primordial prevention is through individual and mass education

Question 14. Hidden caries.
Answer:

Hidden caries

Hidden caries is a term used to describe occlusal dentin caries that is missed on visual examination but is large enough and demineralized enough to be detected radiographically
The detection rate of such lesions will depend upon the prevalence of caries in the population
Occlusal enamel appears sound or only minimally demineralized
Hidden caries is difficult to diagnosed

Question 15. Clinical manifestation of AIDS.
Answer:

Clinical manifestation of AIDS

Unexplained diarrhea
Fatigue
Malaise
Loss of body weight
Fever
Night sweat
Oral thrush
Generalized lymphadenopathy
Enlarged spleen
Opportunistic infections

Question 16. Deductible.
Answer:

Deductible

A deductibleis stipulated flat sum that the patient must pay towards the cost of treatment before the benefits of the program go into effect
A deductibleis sometimes called” front-end-payment”

Question 17. Space maintainers.
Answer:

Space maintainers Definition:

A space maintainer is a device used to maintain the space created by the loss of deciduous teeth

Space Maintainer Requirements:

Maintain the space created
Restores function
Prevent supra eruption of opposing teeth
Simple to construct
Withstand functional forces
Do not exert excessive forces
Maintain oral hygiene
Allow growth of permanent teeth
Should not interfere with oral function

Question 18. Geriatric dentistry.
Answer:

Geriatric dentistry

Geriatric dentistry is the delivery of dental care to older adults involving the diagnosis, prevention and treatment of problems associated with normal aging and age-related disease as part of an interdisciplinary professionals
In older individuals, dental disease is more common due to
Decreased immunity
Presence of systemic disease

Common Oral Problems Are:

Periodontitis
Attrition
Root caries
Early edentulism

Question 19. Epizootic.
Answer:

Epizootic

An epidemic outbreak of the disease in an animal population often with the implication that it may extend to humans
Epizootic can lead to an epidemic among humans who are exposed to disease animals
Epizootic may be
Restricted to a specific area/ local
Genera
Epizootic affects a large number of animals at the same time within a particular region

Question 20. Seasonal trends.
Answer:

Seasonal trends

Seasonal trends is a prominent feature of infectious disease occurrence
Example: Measles and varicella are usually found with their peak incidence during the early spring season
Similarly, upper respiratory tract infections show an increase during the winter season and GIT infections have a seasonal rise during the summer months
The seasonal variation in disease occurrence can be attributed to changes in environmental conditions like temperature, humidity, rainfall, overcrowding, etc.

Question 21. Critical pH.
Answer:

Critical pH

Critical pH represents the demineralization-remineralization cycle
At a critical pH of 5.5 or below
- Hydrogen ions (H+) react with the phosphate group present in the oral cavity
- Results in the formation of hypophosphate
- Due to this, hydroxyapatite crystals dissolve and are termed dimerization
At neutral pH
- With adequate presence of calcium and phosphorous, dissolution is inhibited

Question 22. Newburgh Kingston study.
Answer:

Newburgh Kingston study

On May 2nd, 1945, sodium fluoride was added to the drinking water of Newburg on the Hudson River
Kingston town was the control
After 10 years of fluoridation, Ast et al in 1956 reported that the DMF rate had fallen from 23.5% to 13.9%
Newburgh Kingston thus confirmed the caries inhibitory property of fluoride in drinking water

Question 23. Prevalence of HIV.
Answer:

Prevalence of HIV

Prevalence of HIV refers to the percentage of people ages 15-49 who are infected with HIV
Prevalence of HIV is the number of persons living with HIV at a given time regardless of the time of infection, whether the person has received a diagnosis or the stage of HIV disease
The HIV prevalence rate in India is less than in numerous other countries
During the 1990s, HIV infection rates rose like an epidemic affecting every Indian society
A rise of 0.1% of the population adds more than half a million HIV patients
The north-east and south of India have high HIV rates

Question 24. Customs and habits.
Answer:

Customs:

Customs refers to practices that have been repeated by a number of generations, practices that tend to be followed simply because they have been followed in the past
They have a traditional, automatic, mass character

Customs Habits:

Customs Habits is defined as the tendency towards an act that has become a repeated performance, relatively fixed, consistent and easy to perform by an individual
Customs Habits is a purely personal affair, not entailing any obligation
Example: Smoking a cigarette after dinner

Question 25. Blanket referral.
Answer:

Blanket referral

Blanket referral is an effective program in many schools
Blanket referral consists of the referral of all children to their family dentists
In this program, all children are given referral cards to take home and subsequently to the dentist who signs the cards on completion of examination, treatment, or both
The signed cards are then returned to the school nurse or classroom teacher

Primary Preventive Services Question And Answers

November 4, 2024July 20, 2023 by divya

Primary Preventive Services Definitions

Pit and fissure sealants

They are defined as ” a cement or a resin which is introduced into unprepared occlusal pit and fissures of caries susceptible teeth forming a mechanical and physical protective layer against the action of acid-producing bacteria and their substrates”

Primary Preventive Services Important Notes

1. Disclosing agents

Erythrosine red dye – common disclosing agent
Bismark brown – plaque component of the Ramjford index uses this solution
Two-tone solution – Stains mature plaque as green and immature plaque as red
Mercurochrome
Malachite green

2. Pit and fissure sealants

They mainly act by physical obstruction of pits and grooves
This prevents the penetration of fermentable carbohydrates so the remaining bacteria cannot produce acid
Types:

Primary Preventive Services Pit and fissure sealants

Pit and fissure sealants Indications:

Presence of deep occlusal pits and fissures
Presence of lingual pits or palatal pits in relation to upper lateral incisors and molars
Presence of incipient lesion in pit and fissure
Children and young people with medical, physical, and mental impairment with high caries risk
Children and young people with signs of higher caries activity and coming from non-fluoride areas

Read And Learn More: Percentive Communitive Dentistry Question And Answers

Pit and fissure sealants Contraindications:

Presence of shallow pits and fissures
An open occlusal caries lesion with extension into the dentin
Presence of large occlusal restoration
Presence of interproximal lesions and rampant caries
Partially erupted tooth where in isolation is a problem
Uncooperative children

3. Interdental cleaning aids

Interdental cleaning aids is selected depending on the relative size of the embrasure

Primary Preventive Services Interdental cleaning aids

4. Lactobacillus colony test

The Lactobacillus colony test is the oldest and most widely used microbiological method for assessing caries activity
Measures the number of aciduric bacteria in the patient’s saliva

5. Swab test

Developed by Grainger et al
In it no collection of saliva is necessary
Swab test is valuable in evaluating caries in very young children

Swab test Procedure:

Swab the buccal surfaces of the teeth with a cotton applicator
Incubate the sample in a media
The change in pH over 48 hours of incubation is noted on a pH meter.

Swab test Interpretation:

Primary Preventive Services Interpretation

6. Snyder test

Snyder test measures the ability of the salivary microorganism to form organic acids from a carbohydrate media
Media contains bromocresol green dye which changes color from green to yellow in the range of pH 5.4 to 3.8
Color observations

Primary Preventive Services Snyder test

7.Salivaiy reductase test (or) Salivary Reductase Test.

Salivaiy reductase test measures the activity of the reductase enzyme present in salivary bacteria

Primary Preventive Services Salivary reductase test

8. Alban’s test

Alban’s test is a simplified substitute for the Snyder test
Can be used for routine dental office use
At the time of the test, the patient is asked to spit unstimulated saliva directly into the tube and it is incubated for 4 days.

Primary Preventive Services

Primary Preventive Services Short Essays

Question 1. Bisbiguanides/ Chlorhexidine.
Answer:

Bisbiguanides

Chlorhexidine gluconate and alexidine are the most effective biguanides

Bisbiguanides Chlorhexidine Gluconate:

Bisbiguanides Indications:

As an adjunct to mechanical methods
Immediately after pack removal
After oral surgical procedures
In patients with fixed appliances
For handicapped patients
Drug-induced gingival enlargements
Medically compromised patients
Acute infections
As prophylactic rinse

Bisbiguanides Adverse Effects:

Staining of teeth
Burning sensation
Impaired taste sensation
Rarely, parotid swelling

Bisbiguanides Mechanism:

In low concentrations- bacteriostatic
- Cationic molecules of chlorhexidine bind to the anionic molecules of bacterial cell wall
- Interferes with membrane transport
- Results in leakage of the substance
In high concentrations- bacteriocidal
- Penetration of chlorhexidine into the cell
- Precipitation of cytoplasm

Bisbiguanides Effective Concentration:

10 ml of 0.2%

Question 2. Caries vaccine
(or) Describe the routes of immunization of dental caries vaccine.
Answer:

Caries vaccine

caries vaccine is a suspension of an attenuated or killed microorganism administered for the prevention, amelioration, or treatment of infectious diseases

Caries vaccine Mechanism Of Action:

When the tooth erupts serum antibodies i.e. IgA stimulate opsonization and phagocytosis
These antibodies have an inhibitory effect on glucosyl transferase and on acid production
Caries vaccine results in the inhibition of the metabolic activity of S.mutans on teeth

Caries vaccine Route Of Administration:

Oral route
- Increases stimulation of IgA antibodies
Systemic route
- Subcutaneous administration of s.mutans led to an increase in IgG, IgM and IgA antibodies
- Active gingival-salivary route
- Localizes the immune response by using gingival crevicular fluid as a route
Active immunization
- Synthetic peptides
  - Derived from glucosyl transferase enzyme
Coupling with cholera toxin subunits
- Coupling of the protein with a nontoxic unit of cholera toxin suppresses colonization of S. mutans
Fusing with avirulent strains of salmonella
- Liposomes- increases IgA antibodies
Passive immunization
- External supplements are included
- Bovine milk and whey
- Egg yolk
- Transgenic plants

Primary Preventive Services Peripheral blood

Question 3. Preventive resin restoration.
Answer:

Preventive resin restoration

Preventive resin restoration utilizes the invasive and non-invasive treatment of borderline or questionable caries

Preventive resin restoration Indications:

Deep pit and fissure
Minimal/small carious lesion » Isolated carious lesion

Preventive resin restoration Advantages:

Conservative technique
Cessation of tooth destruction
Can be replaced easily

Question 4. Chemical plaque control.
Answer:

Chemical plaque control Uses:

As adjunct
Prevents recurrence of disease
Chemical plaque control may involve the prevention of plaque formation
Removal of existing plaque
Inhibition of calcification of existing plaque
Altering the pathogenicity of plaque

Classification of Chemical plaque control:

First generation
- Reduces plaque score by 20-50%
- Example: Antibiotics
Second generation
- Reduces plaque score by 70-90%
- Example: Bisbiguanides
Third generation
- Effective against specific organisms

Chemical plaque control Chemical Used:

Antibiotics
Erythromycin
Penicillin
Enzymes
Lipase
Amylase
Quaternary ammonium compounds
Benzalkonium chloride
Bisbiguanide
Chlorhexidine
Metallic salts
Copper
Zinc
Herbal extracts
Phenols
Hydrogen peroxide
Fluorides
Others
Triclosan

Question 5. Anti caries mouth rinses.
Answer:

Anti-caries mouth rinses

Formulated at
0.2% concentration- for weekly use
0.05% concentration- for daily use
Preparation
Prepared by dissolving 200 mg sodium fluoride tablet in 5 teaspoons of fresh clean water « It can be used for 4 members (2 adults and 2 children)
Mechanism
Fluoride forms fluorapatite from hydroxyapatite
Fluoride inhibits bacterial metabolism and plaque acid formation
Indications
If the concentration of fluoride in drinking water is 0.3 ppm or less
Patients with increased caries risk
School fluoride programs
Advantages
30-40% reduction in caries incidence

Question 6. Pit and fissure sealants
(or)Classify pit and fissure sealants. Write about indications and contra-indications.
Answer:

Pit and fissure sealants

Pit and fissure sealants Indication:

Children of less than 4 years of age
Newly erupted teeth
Stained pits and fissures

Pit and fissure sealants Contraindication:

Low carious risk patients
Wide pit and fissure
Partially erupted teeth

Pit and fissure sealants Classification:

Based on polymerization
Self-activation
Light activation
Resin systems
- BIS-GMA
- Urethane acrylate
- Clear or tinted

Pit and fissure sealants Ideal Requisites:

Easily flowable into the deep pit and fissure
Easy and quick to apply and cure
Should result in prolonged retention
Must have cariostatic properties
Must be nonirritant
Should have wear resistance property

Pit and fissure sealants Procedure:

Surface cleanliness of the tooth
Dryness of the tooth surface
Preparing the tooth for sealant application
Application of the sealant

Question 7. Lactobacillus test.
Answer:

Lactobacillus test

Described by Hadley in 1933

Lactobacillus test Principle:

Lactobacillus test Principle estimates the number of acidogenic bacteria in a patient’s saliva by counting the number of colonies appearing on agar

Lactobacillus test Procedure:

Collect paraffin-stimulated saliva (5-10 ml)
Dilute to 1:10 dilution by pipetting 1 ml of saliva into a 9 ml tube of sterile saline solution
Similar again to 1:100 dilution using a 1:10 diluted sample
Mix thoroughly
Spread 0.4 ml of each dilution over agar plates
Incubate for 3-4 days at 37° C
Count the number of colonies

Result:

Primary Preventive Services Chemical plaque control

Lactobacillus test Disadvantages:

Inaccurate
Require complex equipment
Time-consuming
Tedious

Question 8. Self-control of plaque.
Answer:

The self-control of plaque Measures:

The self-control of plaque Toothbrush:

The self-control of plaque ADA’S specification
- Tooth head should be
- 1-11/4* inch in length
- 5/16- 3/8 inches in width
- 2-4 rows of bristles
- 5-12 tufts per row
- Soft- 0.007-0.009 rows
- 80-86 bristles per tufts
The self-control of plaque Types
- Based on the diameter of the bristles
  - Soft- 0.007-0.009 inches
  - Medium- 0.010-0.012 inches
  - Hard- 0.013-0.014 inches
  - Extra hard- 0.015 inches
The self-control of plaque Based on the use
Frequency of brushing
- Every 12 hours
The self-control of plaque Frequency of change of brush
- Every 3 months
- Length of brushing time
  - Initially 10-20 minutes
  - Later 3-5 minutes
The self-control of plaque Dentrifices
- Used in the form of powder, paste, or gels
- Interdental cleansing aids
- Used in periodontally-involved patients
- Used in open embrasures
- Various aids
- Dental floss o Interdental brushes
- Wooden tips
- Yams, gauze strips
- The self-control of plaque Gingival massage
  - Device used
  - Toothbrush
  - Rubber tip stimulator
  - Interdental cleaning device
The self-control of plaque Effects
- Epithelial thickening
- Increased keratinization
- Increased mitotic activity
The self-control of plaque Oral irrigation
- Clean non
- adherent bacteria debris
- Disrupt and detoxify subgingival plaque
- Delivers anti-microbial agents into the periodontal pocket

Question 9. Erythrosine dye.
Answer:

Erythrosine dye

Erythrosine dye is a cherry-pink synthetic agent

Erythrosine dye Uses:

Food coloring agent
In printing inks
Biological stain
Disclosing agent
Radiopaque medium
Sensitizer
Used in sweets, in cakes decorating gels

Erythrosine dye Concentration:

For rinsing
- Red no 3- 6.0 g
- Water to make: 100 ml
- For topical application
- Erythrosine: 0.8 g
- Distilled water-100 ml
- Alcohol 95%-10 ml
- Peppermint oil: 2 drops
Erythrosine dye Tablets
- Red no 3 -15 g
- Sodium chloride- 0.747 %
- Sodium sugary: 0.747 %
- Calcium stearate: 0.995%
- Soluble saccharin: 0.186%
- White oil: 0.124%
- Flavoring: 2.239%
- Sorbitol

Erythrosine dye Purpose:

Patient’s education
Evaluate the effectiveness of the treatment
Evaluate plaque indices
Self-evaluation

Question 10. Toothbrush.
Answer:

Toothbrush Ada’s Specification:

Tooth head should be
1-11/4^ inch in length
5/16-3/8 inches in width
2-4 rows of bristles
5-12 tufts per
Soft- 0.007-0.009 rows
80-86 bristles per tufts

Toothbrush Types:

Based on the diameter of the bristles
- Soft- 0.007-0.009 inches
- Medium- 0.010-0.012 inches
- Hard-0.013-0.014 inches
- Extra hard- 0.015 inches
Based on use
- Manual
- Automatic
- Sonic and ultrasonic
- Ionic
Frequency of brushing
- Every 12 hours
Frequency of change of brush
- Every 3 months
Length of brushing time
- Initially 10-20 minutes
- Later 3-5 minutes

Toothbrush Objectives Of Brushing:

To clean teeth and interdental space
- To prevent plaque formation
- To remove plaque
- To stimulate and massage gingival tissue
- To clean tongue

Toothbrush Parts:

Handle
- Head
- Tufts
- Brushing plane
- Shank

Question 11. Bass technique.
Answer:

Bass technique Synonym:

Sulcus cleaning method

Bass technique Indications:

Open interproximal areas
Routine technique
Exposed root surfaces

Bass technique Technique:

Place the bristles at a 45° angle to gingival
Move in small circular motions
Cover 3 teeth at a time
Repeat around 20 strokes
For occlusal surfaces
Press the bristles firmly against pits and fissures
Activate the bristles
For lingual surfaces of the anterior place the brush vertically

Bass technique Advantages:

Easy
Effective
Stimulate gingiva

Bass technique Disadvantages:

Can cause gingival injury
Time-consuming
Require dexterity

Question 12. Classification of dental caries.
Answer:

Classification of dental caries Clinical:

According to the stage of lesion progression
- Non cavitated
- Cavity
According to the severity of the disease
- Acute
- Chronic
- Stabilized
According to clinical manifestation
- White spot lesion
- Superficial caries
- Medium caries
- Deep caries
- Secondary caries

Classification of dental caries Anatomical:

According to anatomical depth
- Enamel caries « Dentinal caries
- Cementum caries
According to location
- Coronal caries
- Occlusal caries
- Smooth surface caries
- Approximal caries
- Root caries

Question 13. Caries activity tests.
(or) Synder’s test
Answer:

1. Synder’s Test:

Synder’s Test is used for lactobacillus count

Caries activity tests Procedure:

Paraffin-stimulated saliva is collected in test tubes
It is inoculated into glucose and agar media
pH 4.7-5.0 is maintained along with color indicator bromocresol green
The color change indicates pH change and is compared to the standardized color chart and scored
Recordings are carried out at the end of 24 hours, 48 hours and 72 hours

Result:

Primary Preventive Services Caries activity tests

2. Lactobacillus Test:

Described by Hadley in 1933

Caries activity tests Procedure:

Collect paraffin-stimulated saliva [5-10 ml)
Dilute to 1:10 dilution by pipetting 1 ml of saliva into a 9 ml tube of sterile saline solution
Similar again to 1:100 dilution using a 1:10 diluted sample
Mix thoroughly
Spread 0.4 ml of each dilution over agar plates
Incubate for 3-4 days at 37° C
Count the number of colonies

3. Swab Test:

Caries activity tests Procedure:

The oral flora is sampled by swabbing the buccal surfaces of the teeth with a cotton applicator
Caries activity tests is subsequently incubated in the medium
The change in pH following a 48-hour incubation period is read on a pH meter

Interpretation:

Primary Preventive Services Interpretation

Question 14. Modified bass technique.
Answer:

Bass technique

Placement of the head of the brush
- 45° to the long axis of the teeth
- Initial from most posterior teeth
Method
- Place the brush covering 3 most posterior teeth
- Exert gentle pressure
- Use short back and forth motions complete 20 strokes
- Sweep the bristles occlusal
- Repeat it for remaining teeth both buccally and lingually
- For occlusal surfaces, press bristles into pits and fissures and exert strokes
- For lingual surfaces of the anterior, place the brush vertically

Primary Preventive Services Short Question And Answers

Question 1. Interdental cleansing aids.
Answer:

Interdental cleansing aids Uses:

Used in periodontally-involved patients
Used in open embrasures
Removes plaque and debris adherent
Polishes the surfaces
Massage the inter-dental papillae
Reduces gingival bleeding
Contribute to general oral sanitation
Controls halitosis
Various Aids:
Dental floss
Interdental brushes
Wooden tips
Yarns, gauze strips

Question 2. ADA’s specification of the toothbrush.
Answer:

ADA’s specification of the toothbrush

Tooth head should be
- 1-1 l/4th inch in length o 5/16-3/8 inches in width
- 2-4 rows of bristles
- 5-12 tufts per
- Soft- 0.007-0.009 rows
- 80-86 bristles per tufts

Question 3. Disclosing agents.
Answer:

Disclosing agents

They are prepared in liquid, tablet, or lozenge form that contains a dye or other coloring agent
Disclosing agents is used to identify bacterial plaque for instruction, evaluation and research

Disclosing agents Purpose:

Patient’s education
- Evaluate the effectiveness of the treatment
- Evaluate plaque indices
- Self-evaluation

Disclosing agents Requirements:

Color should contrast with the normal color of the oral cavity
- Disclosing agents should not rinse off immediately
- Disclosing agents should not cause any irritation
- Disclosing agents should be thin enough

Disclosing agents Agents

Iodine containing preparation
- Bismarck brown
- Merbromin
- Erythrosine
- Fast green
- Two-tone

Question 4. Synder’s test.
Answer:

Synder’s test

Synder’s test is used for lactobacillus count

Synder’s test Procedure:

Paraffin-stimulated saliva is collected in test tubes
Synder’s test is inoculated into glucose ft agar media
pH 4.7-5.0 is maintained along with color indicator bro- mo cresol green
The color change indicates pH change it is compared to the standardized color chart ft scored
Recordings are carried out at the end of 24 hours, 48 hours, and 72 hours

Question 5. Dental floss.
Answer:

Dental floss Types:

Twisted or non-twisted
Bonded or non-bonded
Waxed or unwaxed
Thick or thin

Dental floss Technique:

Wrap the dental floss around the fingers
Stretch it between the forefinger ft thumb
Pass interproximal through each contact area in the back-forth motion
Move the floss along the tooth apically upto sulus
Repeat it

Dental floss Functions:

Removal of adherent plaque ft debris interdentally
Polish tooth surface
Stimulate ft massage interdetnal papilla
Help to locate
Subgingival calculus
Proximal caries
Overhanging margins
Dental floss is a vehicle for applying polishing / therapeutic agents

Question 6. Charter’s method.
Answer:

Charter’s method Method:

Place the bristles 45° angle to the long axis of teeth pointing coronally
Flexed against the gingiva
Back-and-forth vibratory motions are given

Charter’s method Indication:

After surgery

Charter’s method Effect:

Gingival stimulation
Interproximal cleansing

Question 7. Chlorhexidine.
Answer:

Chlorhexidine Indications:

As an adjunct to mechanical methods
Immediately after pack removal
After oral surgical procedures
In patients with fixed appliances
For handicapped patients
Drug-induced gingival enlargements
Medically compromised patients
Acute infections
As prophylactic rinse

Chlorhexidine Adverse Effect:

Staining of teeth
Burning sensation
Impaired taste sensation
Rarely, parotid swelling

Chlorhexidine Mechanism:

In low concentrations- bacteriostatic
- Cationic molecules of chlorhexidine bind to the
- ionic molecules of bacterial cell wall
- Interferes with membrane transport
- Results in leakage of the substance
In high concentration-bacteriocidal
- Penetration of chlorhexidine into a cell i
- Precipitation of cytoplasm

Chlorhexidine Effective Concentration:

10 ml of 0.2%

Question 8. Active immunization for dental caries.
Answer:

As an adjunct to mechanical methods
Immediately after pack removal
After oral surgical procedures
In patients with fixed appliances
For handicapped patients
Drug-induced gingival enlargements
Medically compromised patients
Acute infections
As prophylactic rinse

Question 9. Roll on technique.
Answer:

Roll on technique Synonym:

ADA method
Sweep method

Roll-on technique Indications

Preparatory for modified Stillman method
Children
Adults with limited dexterity

Roll on technique Technique:

Place the bristles at a 45° angle to tooth surfaces
Lightly roll over it occlusal

Roll on technique Advantage

Massage and stimulate gingiva

Roll-on technique Disadvantage:

Lacerate alveolar mucosa
Ineffective for the cervical third of the tooth and interproximal areas
May produce punctuate lesions

Question 10. Dentrifices.
Answer:

Dentrifices

Dentrifices is a substance used with a toothbrush for the purpose of
cleaning the accessible surfaces of teeth
Used in the form of powder, paste, or gel

Dentrifices Functions:

Minimize plaque build-up
Anticaries action e Removal of stains
Mouth freshener

Dentrifices Composition

Abrasive
- Calcium carbonate
- Calcium phosphate
Humectants
- Maintains moisture
- Glycerine, sorbitol
Preservatives
- Benzoic acid
Thickening agents
- Methylcellulose
Foaming agents
- Sodium lauryl sulfate
Flavoring agents
Mint
Sweetening agents
- Mannitol, saccharine
Desensitizing agents
- Sodium fluoride
Anticalculus agent
- Pyrophosphates

Question 11. Uses of chlorhexidine.
Answer:

Uses of chlorhexidine

As an adjunct to mechanical methods
Immediately after pack removal
After oral surgical procedures
In patients with fixed appliances
For handicapped patients
Drug-induced gingival enlargements
Medically compromised patients
Acute infections
As prophylactic rinse

Question 12. Caries vaccine.
Answer:

Caries vaccine

Caries vaccine is a suspension of an attenuated or killed microorganism administered for the prevention, amelioration or treatment of infectious diseases

Caries vaccine Mechanism Of Action:

When the tooth erupts serum antibodies i.e. IgA stimulate opsonization and phagocytosis
These antibodies have an inhibitory effect on glucosyl transferase and on acid production
It results in the inhibition of the metabolic activity of S.mutans on teeth

Question 13. Indications of a powered toothbrush.
Answer:

Indications of a Powered Toothbrush

Young children
Handicapped patients
Individuals lacking manual dexterity
Patients with prosthodontic or endosseous implants
Orthodontic patients
Institutionalized patients including the elderly who are dependent on care providers
Patients on supportive periodontal therapy

Question 14. Salivary reductase test.
Answer:

Salivary reductase test Procedure:

Paraffin-stimulated saliva is collected in a collection tube
Salivary reductase test is then mixed with the dye Diazo-resorcinol
The caries conduciveness reading or color change is done after 15 minutes

Question 15. Spool method of flossing.
Answer:

Spool method of flossing

About 12-18 inches long floss is taken and about 4 inches from each end is wound around the middle finger of each hand
In both hands, the last three fingers are folded and closed and both hands are moved apart
In this way, about 1-2 inches of floss is held tightly between the index fingers of both hands

Primary Preventive Services Viva Voce

Fredick Tornberg was the first to design the powered toothbrush
The circular method of toothbrushing technique is called the Fones technique
The vertical method of brushing technique is called the Leonard method
Smith method is a physiological method of toothbrushing
The bristles in the bass method are placed at a 45-degree angle to the gingiva
Dental floss is indicated to remove plaque from type I gingival embrasure
Furcation areas are difficult to access with dental floss
The spool method of flossing is used in adults with good manual dexterity
Waxed floss makes a squeaking noise when passed interproximal
Gingival physiotherapy results in better gingival health through increased blood flow
The bound chlorhexidine is slowly released in the active form for a period of 12-24 hours
Triclosan is a phenol derivative present as an antiplaque agent
Brown staining of chlorhexidine is due to the precipitation of salivary melanoidin’s
Humectant present in toothpaste helps in reducing loss of moisture
Sodium lauryl sulfate is the detergent present in toothpaste

Indices For Oral Disease Question And Answers

November 4, 2024July 20, 2023 by divya

Indices For Oral Disease Definitions

Index

A numerical value describing the relative status of a population on a graduated scale with definite upper and lower limits, which is designed to permit and facilitate comparison with other populations classified by the same criteria and methods

Indices For Oral Disease Important Notes

1. Gingival index scoring

Indices For Oral Disease Gingival index scoring

2. Periodontal index scoring

Indices For Oral Disease periodontal index scoring

Read And Learn More: Percentive Communitive Dentistry Question And Answers

3. Scoring System

Indices For Oral Disease Scoring system

4. Treatment needs scoring

Indices For Oral Disease Treatment needs scoring

5. Dean’s fluorosis index scoring
(or) A scoring pattern of Dean’s index.

Indices For Oral Disease Dean's fluorosis index scoring

6. Teeth examined in indices

Indices For Oral Disease teeth examined in indices

7. HO modifications of DMF index

All third molars are included
Temporary restorations are considered D
Only carious cavities are considered

8. Indicators of periodontal status used in CPI are

Gingival bleeding
Calculus
Periodontal pockets

9. Periodontal index by Russell measures the presence/ absence of

Gingival inflammation
Pocket formation
Masticatory function

10. Classification of index

Based on the direction in which their scores can fluctuate
Irreversible index
Reversible index
Depending upon the extent to which areas of the oral cavity are measured
Full mouth index

Indices For Oral Disease

Read And Learn More: Percentive Communitive Dentistry Question And Answers

Simplified index
General categories
Disease index
Symptom index
Treatment Index
Special categories
Simple index
Cumulative index

11.Properties of index

Clarity, simplicity, and objectivity
Validity
Reliability
Quantifiability
Sensitivity
Acceptability

Indices For Oral Disease Long Essays

Question 1. Define indexes and classify them. Write about its ideal requisites.
(or) Classify various indices of the oral cavity. (or )Ideal requirements of index.
Answer:

Indexes Definition:

Classification of Indexes :

Based on the direction in which their scores can fluctuate
Irreversible index
- An index that measures conditions whose scores will not decrease on subsequent examination.
Example: DMFT index
Reversible index
- An index that measures conditions that can increase or decrease on subsequent examination. Ex. Gingival index
Depending upon the extent to which areas of the oral cavity are measured
Full mouth index
- Those indices measure the patient’s entire dentition. Example: PI
Simplified index
- These indices measure only a representative sample of the dental apparatus. Example: OH1-S
General categories
- Disease index
  - D- portion of DMFT index
Symptom index
- Measuring gingiva/sulcular bleeding
Treatment Index
- F portion of the DMFT index
Special categories
- Simple index
  - Measures the presence or absence of a condition
Cumulative index
- Measures all the evidence of a condition, past or present

Indexes Ideal Requisites:

1. Clarity, simplicity and objectivity:

The examiner should remember the rules of the index clearly
The index should be simple and easy to apply
The criteria should be objective

2. Validity:

The index should measure what it is intended to measure
Validity should correspond to the clinical stages of the disease under study

3. Reliability:

The index should be measured consistently at different times and under a variety of conditions

4. Quantifiability:

The index should be amenable to statistical analysis so that the status can be expressed by a number

5. Sensitivity:

The index should be able to detect small shifts in either direction

6. Acceptability:

The use of an index should not be painful or demeaning to the subject

Question 2. Define an index and describe the CPITN index
(or) Define index. Describe the CPITN with its objectives, scoring system, advantages, and limitations.
Answer:

Index Cpitn Index

Index Objectives:

To survey and evaluate periodontal treatment needs
identify actual and potential problems posed by periodontal diseases both in the community and in the individual

Index Advantages:

Simplicity
Speed
International uniformity

Index Limitations:

Does not record the position of the gingival margin
Does not provide an assessment of past periodontal breakdown

Index Procedure:

The dentition is divided into sextants for assessment of periodontal treatment needs
Each sextant is given a score

Index Sextants:

Indices For Oral Disease Sextants

Index Probing Procedure:

A tooth is probed to determine pocket depth and to detect subgingival calculus and bleeding response
The probe is inserted between the tooth and the gingival, and the sulcus depth or pocket depth is noted against the color
A tooth should be probed in at least 6 points, the mesiobuccal, distobuccal, and corresponding sites on lingual surfaces

Code and Criteria

Indices For Oral Disease Codes and Criteria

Question 3. Classify them. Add a note on the DMFT and DMFS index and on its limitations.
Answer:

Dmft Index:

Developed by Henry T Klein, Carole E Palmer and Knutson ] W in 1938

Dmft Index Components:

D- used to describe decayed teeth
- M- used to missing teeth due to decay
- F- used to describe a number of teeth attacked by caries but which have been restored

Dmft Index Calculation:

Individual DMFT= D+M+F
Group average
- Total DMF / total number of subjects examined

Dmft Index Limitations:

Not related to the number of teeth at risk
Invalid in an older individual
Misleading in children
Overestimate caries experience in teeth
Little use in root caries
Equates a disease state with a healthy state

Dmfs Index:

Dmft Index Components:

D- used to describe decayed teeth surface
M- used to missing teeth surface due to decay
F- used to describe the number of teeth surfaces attacked by caries but which have been restored

Dmft Index Calculation:

If 28 teeth are examined
16 posterior teeth[16*5)= 80 surfaces
12 anterior teeth( 12*4)= 48 surfaces
Total= 128 surfaces
If third molars are included (4*5)= 20 surfaces
Total= 148 surfaces

Dmft Index Limitations:

Time-consuming
- Likely to produce inconsistencies in diagnosis
- May require the use of a radiograph

Indices For Oral Disease Short Essays

Question 1. Dean’s fluorosis index.
Answer:

Dean’s fluorosis index

Introduced by Trendley H dean in 1934
Dean’s fluorosis index is an index for the assessment of dental fluorosis
Dean’s fluorosis index is the most widely used fluorosis index since 1942

Question 2. Oral hygiene index.
Answer:

Oral hygiene index

Described by John C. Greene and Jack R. Vermillion in 1960

Oral Hygiene Index Methodology:

Components
Debris index
Calculus index
The dental arch is divided into three segments

Indices For Oral Disease Oral hygiene index

The surface covered by debris and calculus is estimated

Scoring For Dl-S:

Indices For Oral Disease Scoring for DI-S

Scoring For Cl-S:

Indices For Oral Disease Scoring for

Interpretation For Dl-S and Cl-S:

Indices For Oral Disease Interpretation for DI-S&CI-S

Interpretation For OHI:

Indices For Oral Disease Interpretation for OHI

Question 3. Composite index.
Answer:

Composite index

The periodontal index is a composite index because it records both the reversible changes due to gingivitis and irreversible changes brought about by periodontal disease

Composite Index Method:

Teeth examined
All teeth present are assessed for gingival inflammation and periodontal involvement
Scoring is given

Composite Index Calculation:

PI score per person = sum of individual score/number of teeth present

Question 4. Oral hygiene index-simplified.
Answer:

The oral hygiene index simplified

Described by John C.Greene and Jack R.Vermillion in 1964

Index-simplified Tooth Examined:

16/17,11,16/27
46/47,31,36/37

index-simplified Surfaces Examined:

Facial surfaces of 16/17,11, 26/27, 31
Lingual surfaces of 36/37,46/47

index-simplified Sites:

DI-S- incisal third to gingival third
CI-S – distal gingival crevice subgingivally from distal to mesial contact

Question 5. Loe and Sillness index.
Answer:

Stillness Index Teeth Examined:

All or selected teeth

Stillness Index Surfaces:

Distal facial papillae
Facial margin
Mesial facial papillae
Lingual margin

Scoring:

Indices For Oral Disease Scoring loe and sillness

Stillness Index Calculation:

For individual tooth
Score / 4
For individual person
Total score/ total teeth examined

Interpretation:

Indices For Oral Disease Interpretation

Question 6. Caries index for primary dentition.
Answer:

Primary Dentition Def Index:

Described by Gruebbel A.O. in 1944
- d- decayed tooth e
- e-extracted tooth e
- f- filled tooth

Primary Dentition Examination Method:

d- decayed teeth
e-extracted teeth
- Indicates those deciduous teeth that have been extracted due to caries or which have badly decayed that they are indicated for extraction
f-filled teeth
- Indicates the number of deciduous teeth that have been attacked by caries but which have been restored without any recurrent decay present

Primary dentition Calculation:

For deciduous teeth 20 teeth are present
For the def index maximum score is 20
For deaths maximum score is 88, it is as follows
8 posterior teeth(8*5)= 40 surfaces
12 anterior teeth( 12*4)= 48 surfaces

Question 7. Define index. Write notes on DMFT and DMFS.
Answer:

Dmft Index:

Developed by Henry T Klein, Carole E palmer and Knutson J W in 1938

Dmft Index Components:

D- used to describe decayed teeth
M- used to missing teeth due to decay
F- used to describe a number of teeth attacked by caries but which have been restored

Dmft Index Calculation:

Individual DMFT= D+M+F
Group average
Total DMF / total number of subjects examined

Dmfs Index:

Components:

D- used to describe decayed teeth surface
M- used to missing teeth surface due to decay
F- used to describe a number of teeth surfaces attacked by caries but which have been restored

Dmft Index Calculation:

If 28 teeth are examined
16 posterior teeth(16*5)= 80 surfaces
12 anterior teeth( 12*4)= 48 surfaces
Total= 128 surfaces
If third molars are included (4*5)= 20 surfaces
Total= 148 surfaces

Indices For Oral Disease Short Question And Answers

Question 1. DMF index.
Answer:

DMF index

Developed by Henry T Klein, Carole E palmer and Knutson J W in 1938

DMF index Components

D- used to describe decayed teeth
M- used to missing teeth due to decay
F- used to describe the number of teeth attacked by caries but which have been restored

DMF index Limitations:

Not related to the number of teeth at risk
Invalid in an older individual
Misleading in childer
Overestimate carries experience in teeth
Little use in root caries
Equates a disease state with a healthy state

Question 2. Community fluorosis index.
Answer:

Community fluorosis index

Devised by Trendley H. Dean in 1946
It is to calculate the prevalence and severity of fluorosis in a group or community
Index = nXw/N
Where
- n= number of individuals in each category
- w= weighting for each category
- N= total population

Indices For Oral Disease Community fluorosis index

Question 3. Uses of PI.
Answer:

Uses of PI

Estimate deeper periodontal disease
Measure the presence or absence of gingival inflammation and its severity
Pocket formation
Masticatory function

Question 4. Validity of index.
Answer:

Validity of index

The index should measure what it is intended to measure
It should correspond to the clinical stages of the disease under study

Indices For Oral Disease Viva Voce

Def index measures dental caries in the primary dentition.
Cumulative indices measure all the evidence of past and present condition
The gingival index is also known as Loe and Silness and the Plaque index is also known as Silness and Loe index
The periodontal disease index is given by Ramfjord
Sulcus bleeding index and papillary bleeding index measure gingival bleeding
The weight of the CPITN probe is 5 grams
The length of the CPITN probe is 14 mm
In DMFT, decayed tooth include
A tooth with caries below the existing restoration
A tooth with a temporary restoration
An index measuring the periodontal disease of an individual is classified under a composite index
Plaque index is an example of a reversible index
The plaque index measures the thickness of plaque at the gingival third
Russell periodontal index does not measure gingival recession

Atraumatic Restorative Treatment Question And Answers

November 11, 2024July 20, 2023 by divya

Atraumatic Restorative Treatment Definitions

Atraumatic Restorative Treatment

Atraumatic restorative is a procedure based on removing carious tooth tissues using hand instruments alone and restoring the cavity with an adhesive restorative material.

Atraumatic Restorative Treatment

Atraumatic Restorative Treatment Short Essays

Question 1. Atraumatic restorative treatment.
Answer:

Atraumatic Restorative Treatment

Atraumatic restorative treatment is a procedure based on removing carious tooth tissues using hand instruments alone and restoring the cavity with an adhesive restorative material

Atraumatic Restorative Treatment Principles:

Removing carious tooth tissues using hand instruments
Restoring the cavity with a restorative material that sticks to the tooth

Atraumatic Restorative Treatment Indication:

Only in small cavities
Accessible cavities
Public health programs

Read And Learn More: Percentive Communitive Dentistry Question And Answers

Atraumatic Restorative Treatment Contra-Indications:

Presence of swelling or fistula
Exposed pulp
Painful teeth with chronic inflammation of pulp ‘
Carious cavity with inaccessible area

Atraumatic Restorative Treatment Advantages:

Requires minimal cavity preparation
Painless technique
Simplifies infection control
No electrical driven & expensive dental equipment required
Simple
Cost-effective
Friendly procedure
Accessible for all population groups

Atraumatic Restorative Treatment Procedure:

Place cotton rolls alongside the tooth to be treated
Remove plaque wet cotton pellet
Diy the surface with a dry pellet
Caries is removed by dental hatchet
Next, the cavity is cleaned with wet cotton pellets
Conditioning the cavity with dentin conditioner
Mixing of GIC
Restoring the cavity
Rub a small amount of petroleum jelly and press firmly
Remove excess material

Atraumatic Restorative Treatment Circular scooping movements of the excavator

Atraumatic Restorative Treatment Removal of excess material by the carver blade of

Atraumatic Restorative Treatment Arestopred one -surface cavity

Atraumatic Restorative Treatment Plastic steip and wedge in position

Atraumatic Restorative Treatment Viva Voce

Atraumatic restorative treatment [ART) follows the principle of removing carious tooth tissue using a hand instrument only
ART was a theme of World Health Day in 1992
ART can be employed when a community cannot afford expensive dental equipment
ART was pioneered in the 1980s in Tanzania by Joe, Faencken, and Holmgren
ART can be employed when there is a clear occlusal cavity
ART is absolutely contraindicated in the presence of swelling or fistula near the carious tooth
GIC bonding in ART is a chemical
Control of saliva is an important aspect of the success of ART
A small spoon excavator is used to clean the enamel dentin junction
A dental hatchet is used to widen the entrance to the cavity by removing unsupported enamel
Petroleum jelly is used to keep moisture away from GIC in ART
A plastic strip is used to contour the proximal surface of multiple surface restoration in ART
Poor adhesion is the result of over-mixing of GC material.

Behavioral Sciences Management Short And Long Essay Question And Answers

November 11, 2024July 19, 2023 by divya

Behavioral Sciences Definitions

Sociology

Sociology is defined as the study of human interactions and interrelations, their conditions and Consequences

Behavioral Sciences Important Notes

1. Social Stratification

2. Intelligence Quotient (IQ)

Behavioral Sciences Intelligence quotient

Behavioral Sciences Short Question And Answers

Question 1. Nuclear family.
Answer:

Nuclear Family

The nuclear family is universal in all human society
Consists of
Married couple and their children while they are still dependents

Read And Learn More: Percentive Communitive Dentistry Question And Answers

Question 2. Intelligence Quotient.
Answer:

Intelligence Quotient

Obtained by
- Dividing the mental age by chronological age
- Then multiplying by 100
- IQ=( Mental age / chronological age) 100

Question 3. Sociology-definition.
Answer:

Sociology-Definition

Sociology-definition is the science concerned with the organization/ structure of social groups
Sociology-definition is defined as the study of human interactions and interrelations, their conditions and consequences
Sociology-definition deals with human relationships and human behavior for a better understanding of the pattern of human life

Atraumatic Behavioral Sciences Managment

Behavioral Sciences Viva Voce

Learned behavior that has been socially acquired is culture.
The term new families is implied to those under 10 years of duration.
A family in which parents have separated or where death has occurred of either parent is a broken family.

Behavioural Management Definitions

Reinforcement

Reinforcement means any consequences that increase the likelihood of a behavior being shown

Behavioral Management Important Notes

1. Home Technique

Indications
- 3-6 years
- A child who can understand simple verbal commands
- Children displaying uncontrolled behavior
- Healthy children displaying uncontrolled behavior
Contraindications
- Children under 3 years of age
- Handicapped/ immature/ frightened child
- Physical, mental, and emotional handicap.

2. Desensitization

Desensitization is an effective method for reducing maladaptive behavior
Desensitization is accomplished by teaching the child a competing response such as relaxation and then introducing progressively more threatening stimuli.

3. Modelling

Modeling is based on the social learning principle allowing a patient to observe one or more models demonstrating positive behaviour in a situation
Modelling is brought about by
Live models
Filmed models
Posters
Audiovisual aids

4. Indications Of Tell Show Do The Technique

Children more than 3 years of age
Fearful child
First Visit

5. Behaviour-Shaping Techniques

Desensitization
Modelling
Contingency management

6. Physical Restraints Can Be

Active – restraints performed by dentist or parents or staff
Passive – with the aid of the restraining device

Behavioural Management Short Essays

Question 1. Management of children in the dental office.
Answer:

Management Of Children In The Dental Office Voice Control:

The voice should be soft, gentle, modulated
Management of children in the dental office is a controlled alteration of voice volume, tone, or pace to influence a patient’s behavior

Management Of Children In The Dental Office Non-Verbal Communication:

Smiling face/ other facial expression
Walking with the patient around
Admiration, encouragement, friendliness

Management Of Children In The Dental Office Biofeedback: It includes EMG activity

Management Of Children In The Dental Office Coping:

Patient differs in coping with stress associated with painful experiences
It includes distraction/ displacement of attention

Management Of Children In The Dental Office Humour:

Humor is to elevate the mood of the child

Management Of Children In The Dental Office Relaxation:

Reduces stress
Reduces reaction to pain
Reduces anxiety present

Management Of Children In The Dental Office Audio-Analgesia:

Diverts the attention of the patient
This reduces stress and decreases reaction to pain

Management Of Children In The Dental Office Hypnosis:

It includes
Flattering of closed eyelid ° Deep breathing
Progressive sense of relaxation

Management Of Children In The Dental Office Implosion Therapy:

Refers to the picturization of animated movies

Management Of Children In The Dental Office Aversive Conditioning:

Aversive Conditioning includes
- Physical restraints
  - Use of mouth props
  - Restraint of the patient by the dentist and assistant
Home technique

Management Of Children In The Dental Office Drug Therapy:

Used when basic techniques do not work
Management Of Children In The Dental Office Used in
- Very young children
- Very apprehensive children
- Physically handicapped children
- Mentally handicapped children
Drugs Used
- Sedative and hypnotics
- Anti-anxiety drugs
- Narcotics

Question 2. Dental practice management.
Answer:

Practice Management In The Dental Office Setting:

Selection of the location
Locate where there are few dentists
In town, surrounded by villages, near a bus stop
In a city near the railway station, a shopping complex
Close to government commercial offices, corporate and business houses
Located in a place from where ladies can commute easily without fear

1. Selection Of The Building:

Select the dental office in a new building
Selection of the building should be well-ventilated, with a proper electrical, water, and drainage system
Selection of the building should have a parking facility

2. Designing Of The Dental Office:

A spacious waiting room, work area, x-ray room, laboratory, resting place, toilet, etc
Furniture must be durable, aesthetic, and comfortable
Placement of each electrical equipment and gadget required
The exact position of the dental chair and unit, wash basin
Autoclaving and sterilization done in a separate chamber
The compressor and the generator should be kept as far away as possible

Management Of Dental Office:

A dentist may appoint a full-time receptionist, a dental assistant
Fair salaries and good benefits are necessary to avoid job dissatisfaction

Practice Management Patient System:

Dentists should have good communication with their patients
He should be aware of the timings, weekly holidays, etc
An appointment book should be maintained
The clinic should be open at least 30 minutes before the first appointment
Should have proper disposal of waste

Behavioural Management Short Question And Answers

Question 1. Home technique.
Answer:

Home Technique

Home: Hand Over Mouth Exercise
Home technique is an accepted technique for intercepting and managing demonstrably unsuitable behaviour

Home Technique Procedure

The dentist gently places his hand on the child’s mouth
He then whispers in the child’s ear that if he cooperates, the hand will be removed
Once the child cooperates complements the child for good behaviour
Physical restraints are used only as a last resort

Question 2. Reinforcement.
Answer:

Reinforcement

Reinforcement means any consequences that increase the likelihood of a behavior being shown

Reinforcement Types:

Primary
- Based on primary biological needs
- Example: food, clothing
Secondary
- Involves that are not intrinsically rewarding
- Example: praise
Positive
- It is a pleasant reinforcement
- It increases the likelihood of behavior
- Example: voice modulation, facial expression
Negative
- It is an unpleasant event thus it can be avoided
- Example: threats of failing an examination

Question 3. Modeling in behavior management.
Answer:

Modeling In Behavior Management

Developed by Bandura in 1969

Behavior Management Requirements:

Expended concentrated attention
Presence of sufficient retention of desirable behavior
Must reproduce effectively the behavior modeled
The newly acquired behavior must be appropriately rewarded

Behavior Management Uses:

To achieve the attention of the child
To alleviate anxiety
To encourage preventive care at home
Reduces uncertainty

Behavioural Management Viva Voce

Voice control is an effective communicative technique using sudden and firm commands to stop disruptive behavior and to get the child’s attention
HOME and physical restraints are methods of aversive conditioning
Behavior followed by termination of an aversive event is negative reinforcement
The show-do technique shapes the patient’s response to procedures through desensitization
Tell show-do technique uses verbal explanation, demonstration, and completion of the task
Modeling is an important component of social learning theory.

Cultural Taboos Important Notes

1. Social Norms

They indicate the established and approved ways of doing things, of dress, of speech, and of appearance
They are rules that a group uses for appropriate and inappropriate values, beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors
Types: folkways, mores, and taboos

2. Folkways

They are the patterns of conventional behavior in society and norms that apply to everyday matters

3. Mores

They are norms or lessons that express fundamental values of society
They are derived from the established practices of society
Some important mores are converted into laws to ensure implementations

4. Taboos

Taboos is a strong social prohibition or ban against words, objects, actions, or discussions that are considered undesirable or offensive by a group, culture, society, or community

Cultural taboos Short Question And Answers

Question 1. Taboos related to dentistry in India.
Answer:

Taboos Related To Dentistry In India

Some taboos may lead to severe penalties while others result in embarrassment, shame and rudeness
Taboos Related To Dentistry In India Example:
- Tooth avulsion
- Lacquering and dyeing of teeth
- Tattooing

Basics In Statistics Question And Answers

November 11, 2024July 19, 2023 by divya

Basics In Statistics Definitions

Sample

The sample is part of a population called the universe, reference, or parent population

Biostatistics

Biostatistics is that branch of statistics concerned with mathematical facts and data related to biological events

Variable

The variable is a state, condition, concept, or event whose value is free to vary within the population

Read And Learn More: Percentive Communitive Dentistry Question And Answers

Basics In Statistics Important Notes

1. Measures of central tendency

Arithmetic mean
- Simplest measure
- Obtained by summing up all the observations divided by the number of observations
- The arithmetic mean is very sensitive to extreme scores.
Median
- Median is the simplest division of the set of measurements into two halves
- When the distribution has odd numbers, the middle value is the median, when the distribution has an even number of elements, the average of two middle scores is the median
- The median is insensitive to small numbers.
Mode
Mode is the most frequently occurring value in a set of observations

2. Sampling

Simple random sampling
- Used when the population is small and homogenous.
Systemic sampling stratified sampling
- Used when the population is large, non-homogenous, and scattered
Multistage sampling
- Employed in large country surveys
- Carried out in several stages
Multiphase sampling
- Here sampling is done in different phases
Cluster sampling
- Involves grouping the population and then surveying
Stratified sampling
- Used when the population is large, nonhomogenous

3.Properties Of The Normal Curve

Bell-shaped
Symmetrical
The height of the curve is maximum at the mean
Mean = median = mode
The area under the curve between any two points can be found in terms of the relationship between mean and standard deviation.

Mean ± 1 SD = 68.3% of observation
Mean ± 2 SD = 95.4% of observation
Mean + 3 SD = 99.7% of observation

4. Classification Of Data

Qualitative data
- Qualitative data is data with frequency but no magnitude
- Nonparametric tests are used for it

Basic In Statistics

Quantitative data
- Quantitative data is data with a magnitude
- Parametric tests are used for it

5. The Chi-Square Test Is Used

To test the association between the cause and effect
To find the goodness of fit
To test the differences between two/more proportions

6. Tests

Basics In Statistics Tests

Basics In Statistics Long Essays

Question 1. Define sample. What are the ideal requisites of sampling, describe different sampling methods.
Answer:

Sample:

Sample is part of a population called the universe, reference, or parent population

Sample Ideal Requisites:

Efficiency
Representativeness
Measurability
Size-large
Adequate coverage
Goal orientation
Feasibility
Economic

Sample Sampling Methods:

Sample Probability Sampling:

Simple Random Sampling
- Each member of the population has an equal chance of being included in the sample
- The member is determined by chance only © Methods of random selection are
- Lottery method
- Table of random numbers
Systematic
Systematic is obtained by selecting one unit at random and then selecting additional units at evenly spaced intervals till an adequate sample size is obtained
Systematic can be adopted as long as there is no periodicity of occurrence of any particular event in the population
Stratified Random
The population to be sampled is subdivided into strata
A simple random sample is then chosen from it
Used for a heterogeneous population
Systematic ensures more representativeness, provides greater accuracy, and can concentrate over a wider area
Systematic eliminates sampling variation

Sample Cluster Sampling:

Useful when a population forms natural groups
First, a sample of the clusters is selected and then all units in clusters are surveyed

Sample Advantage:

Simple
Less expensive

Sample Disadvantage:

Cannot be generalized

Sample Non-Probability Sampling:

Sample Accidental Sampling:

Sampling is a matter of taking what you can get
Sampling is not randomly obtained

Sample Advantage:

Sample Accidental Sampling is inexpensive and less time-consuming

Sample Purposive Sampling:

Sample Purposive Sampling is a nonrepresentative subset of some larger population
A sample is achieved by asking a participant to suggest someone else willing for the study

1. Quota Sampling:

Quota Sampling involves the selection of proportional samples of subgroups within a target population to ensure generalization

2. Dimensional Sampling:

A small sample is selected then each selected case is examined in detail

3. Mixed Sampling:

Constitute a combination of both probability and nonprobability sampling

Question 2. Define biostatistics. Write in detail the uses of biostatistics in dental public health.
Answer:

Biostatistics:

Biostatistics is that branch of statistics concerned with mathematical facts and data related to biological events
Biostatistics deals with the statistical methodologies involved in biological sciences

Biostatistics Uses:

Measure the state of health of the community
Identify the health problems
Compare the health status of one country with another and past status with the present
Predict health trends
Plan and administer dental health services
Evaluate the achievement of public health program
Fix priorities in public health program
Evaluate the efficacy of vaccines, sera, etc
Measure mortality and morbidity
Test whether the difference between 2 populations is real or a chance occurrence
Study correlation between attributes in the same population
Promote health legislation
Help the dentist to think quantitatively

Question 3. Define sampling. Classify sampling. Enumerate any one sampling.
Answer:

Sampling:

Sampling is the process or technique of selecting a sample of appropriate characteristics and adequate size

Basics In Statistics Classify sampling

Probability Sampling:

Simple Random Sampling:

Each member of the population has an equal chance of being included in the sample
The member is determined by chance only
Methods of random selection are
- Lottery method
- Table of random numbers

Sampling Systematic:

Sampling Systematic is obtained by selecting one unit at random and then selecting additional units at evenly spaced intervals till an adequate sample size is obtained
Sampling Systematic can be adopted as long as there is no periodicity of occurrence of any particular event in the population

1. Stratified Random:

The population to be sampled is subdivided into strata
A simple random sample is then chosen from it
Used for a heterogeneous population
It ensures more representativeness, provides greater accuracy and can concentrate over a wider area
It eliminates sampling variation

2. Cluster Sampling:

Useful when a population forms natural groups
First, a sample of the clusters is selected and then all units in clusters are surveyed

Sampling Advantage:

Simple
Less expensive

Sampling Disadvantage:

Cannot be generalized

Question 4. Enumerate various measures of dispersion and describe in detail the test of significance.
Answer:

Measures Of Dispersion:

Range
- The range of the difference between the smallest and largest results in a set of data
Mean deviation
- Mean deviation is the average of the deviation from the arithmetic mean
Standard deviation

Measures Of Dispersion Test Of Significance:

Measures Of Dispersion Test Of Significance deals with the techniques to know how far the differences between the estimates of different samples are due to sampling variations

1. Standard Error of Mean (SE):

Gives the standard deviation of the mean of several samples from the same population

= standard deviation / √n

2. Standard Error of Proportion:

= p and q = proportion of occurrence of an event

in 2 groups

n = sample size

Measures Of Dispersion Standard Error Of Difference Between Two Means:

Indicates whether the samples represent two different universe

Measures Of Dispersion Standard Error Of Difference Between Proportion:

Indicate whether the difference is significant or has occurred by chance

Measures Of Dispersion Chi-Square Test:

Measures Of Dispersion Uses:

Test whether the difference in the distribution of attributes in different groups is due to sampling variation or not
Test the significance of the difference between 2 proportion
Used when there are more than 2 groups to be compared

Measures Of Dispersion Z Test:

Test the significance of differences in means for large samples
‘t’ Test

Measures Of Dispersion Synonym:

Student’s t-test

Measures Of Dispersion Uses:

Used when the sample size is small
Used to test the hypothesis
Find the significance of the difference between the 2 proportions

Measures Of Dispersion Types:

Unpaired’t’ test
Applied to unpaired data made on individuals of 2 different sample
Test if the difference between the means is real or not

Measures Of Dispersion Paired’t test:

Applied to paired data obtained from one sample only

Question 5. Define biostatistics. Describe in detail the normal curve. Write a note on measures of central tendency.
(or) Normal distribution/ Properties of normal curve/ Gaussian curve.
(or) Mean, Median, Mode.
(or) Measures of central tendency.
Answer:

Biostatistics:

Biostatistics is that branch of statistics concerned with mathematical facts and data related to biological events
Biostatistics deals with the statistical methodologies involved in biological sciences

Biostatistics Normal Curve:

Biostatistics A Normal Curve is a pattern followed by very many sets of continuous measurements.
Biostatistics A Normal Curve is characterized by a symmetric, bell-shaped curve
In a normal curve
- The area between one standard deviation on either side of the mean will include approximately 68% of the values
- The area between two standard deviations on either side of the mean will include approximately 95% of the values
- The area between three standard deviations on either side of the mean will include approximately 99.5% of the values

Biostatistics Characteristics:

Biostatistics Characteristics is smooth, symmetrical bell-shaped
The maximum number of observations is at the center and gradually decreases at the extremities
The total area is 1, the mean is 0 and standard deviation is 1
Mean, median and mode coincide at center

Basics In Statistics Normal curve

Basics In Statistics Measures of central tendency

Basics In Statistics Short Essays

Question 1. Presentation of statistical data.
(or) Pie Chart
(or) Histogram
(or) Pictogram
(or) Uses of biostatistics
Answer:

Presentation Of Statistical Data Tabulation

Tables are simple devices used for data presentation
Prepared manually or mechanically

Presentation Of Statistical Data Types:

1. Simple Table:

Way table containing one characteristic of data only

Basics In Statistics Simple table

Presentation Of Statistical Data Master Table:

Contains all the data obtained from a survey

Basics In Statistics Master table

Presentation Of Statistical Data Frequency Distribution Table: Two-column table

1st column: lists classes of data
2nd column: lists the frequency of each class

Basics In Statistics Frequency distribution table

Charts/ Diagrams:

1. Bar Charts:

BarCharts is a diagram of columns/ bars
- The height of the bars determines the value of the particular data
- The width of the bar remains the same
- The bars are separated by spaces
- The bars can be either vertical/ horizontal

Presentation Of Statistical Data Types:

Simple bar chart
Represents only one variable

Basics In Statistics Simple bar chart

Presentation Of Statistical Data Multiple Bar Chart

Consist of a set of bars of the same width corresponding to the different sections without any gap in between

Basics In Statistics Multiple bar chart

Component bar chart
- Individual bars are divided into 2 or more parts
- Used to compare the sub-groups

Basics In Statistics Compare the sub groups

2. Pie Chart:

The entire graph looks like a pie and its components are represented by its slices
- The Pie Chart is divided into different sectors corresponding to the frequencies of the variables
- The segments are then shaded/ colored

Basics In Statistics Pie chart

3. Histogram:

A histogramis a pictorial presentation of data
Class intervals are presented on the X-axis and frequencies on the Y axis
No space occurs between the cells

Basics In Statistics Histogram

4. Pictogram:

They are small pictures used for data presentation USA

Basics In Statistics Pictogram

5. Line Diagram:

Used for continuous variable
Time is represented on the X-axis and value on the Y-axis

Basics In Statistics Line diagram

6. Statistical Maps:

Refer to the geographic area
Dot/ point is used to represent the area

Question 2. Types of diagram.
Answer:

1. Bar Charts:

Bar Charts is a diagram of columns/ bars
- The height of the bars determines the value of the particular data
- The width of the bar remains the same
- The bars are separated by spaces
- The bars can be either vertical/ horizontal

Bar Charts Types:

Simple bar chart
- Represents only one variable

2. Multiple Bar Chart:

Consist of a set of bars of the same width corresponding to the different sections without any gap in between

3. Component Bar Chart:

Individual bars are divided into 2 or more parts
Used to compare the sub-groups

4. Pie Chart:

The entire graph looks like a pie and its components are represented by its slices
The Pie Chart is divided into different sectors corresponding to the frequencies of the variables
The segments are then shaded/ colored

5. Histogram:

A histogram is a pictorial presentation of data
Class intervals are presented on the X-axis and frequencies on the Y-axis
No space occurs between the cells

6. Pictogram:

Pictogram are small pictures used for data presentation

Question 3. Types of samples/ Probability sampling methods/ Sampling methods.
(or) Cluster sampling
Answer:

Probability Sampling

Simple Random Sampling:

Each member of the population has an equal chance of being included in the sample
The member is determined by chance only
Methods of the random selection are e
- Lottery method
- Table of random numbers

Probability Sampling Systematic:

Probability Sampling Systematic is obtained by selecting one unit at random and then selecting additional units at evenly spaced intervals till an adequate sample size is obtained
It can be adopted as long as there is no periodicity of occurrence of any particular event in the population

Probability Sampling Stratified Random:

The population to be sampled is subdivided into strata
A simple random sample is then chosen from it
Used for a heterogeneous population
Stratified Random ensures more representativeness, provides greater accuracy and can concentrate over a wider area
Stratified Random eliminates sampling variation

Probability Sampling Cluster Sampling:

Useful when a population forms natural groups
First, a sample of the clusters is selected and then all units in clusters are surveyed

Probability Sampling Advantage:

Simple
Less expensive

Probability Sampling Disadvantage:

Cannot be generalized

Probability Sampling Non-Probability Sampling:

Probability Sampling Accidental Sampling:

Accidental Sampling is a matter of taking what you can get
Accidental Sampling is not randomly obtained

Probability Sampling Advantage:

Probability Sampling is inexpensive and less time-consuming

Probability Sampling Purposive Sampling:

Purposive Sampling is a nonrepresentative subset of some larger population
A sample is achieved by asking a participant to suggest someone else willing for the study

Probability Sampling Quota Sampling:

Quota Sampling involves the selection of proportional samples of subgroups within a target population to ensure generalization

Probability Sampling Dimensional Sampling:

A small sample is selected then each selected case is examined in detail

Probability Sampling Mixed Sampling:

Constitute a combination of both probability and nonprobability sampling

Question 4. Simple random sampling.
Answer:

Simple Random Sampling

Each member of the population has an equal chance of being included in the sample
The member is determined by chance only
Methods of random selection are the
- Lottery method
- Table of random numbers

Question 5. Multistage sample.
Answer:

Multistage Sample

Multistage sample is a sampling procedure often used when the sampling units can be defined in a hierarchical manner

Multistage Sample Steps:

Select the groups/cluster
Then subsamples are taken in subsequent stages
- 1st stage: choice of states within countries
- 2nd stage: choice of towns within each state
- 3rd stage, choice of neighborhoods in each town

Question 6. Tests of significance.
(or)’t’ test.
Answer:

Tests Of Significance

Tests of significance deal with the techniques to know how far the differences between the estimates of different samples is due to sampling variations

Tests Of Significance Standard Error Of Mean(Se):

Gives the standard deviation of the mean of several samples from the same population

Tests Of Significance Standard Error Of Proportion:

\(=\sqrt{\frac{p q}{n}} \mathrm{p} \and \mathrm{q}=\) proportion of occurrence of an event

in 2 groups n= sample size

Tests Of Significance Standard Error Of Difference Between Two Means

Indicates whether the samples represent two different universe

Tests Of Significance Standard Error Of Difference Between Proportion

Indicate whether the difference is significant or has occurred by chance

Tests Of Significance Chi-Square Test

Tests Of Significance Uses:

Test whether the difference in the distribution of attributes in different groups is due to sampling variation or not
Test the significance of the difference between 2 proportion
Used when there are more than 2 groups to be compared

Tests Of Significance Z Test:

Test the significance of differences in means for large samples

Tests Of Significance ‘t’ Test:

Tests Of Significance Synonym:

Student’s t-test

Tests Of Significance Uses:

Used when the sample size is small
Used to test the hypothesis
Find the significance of the difference between the 2 proportions

Tests Of Significance Types:

Tests Of Significance Unpaired ‘t’ test:

Applied to unpaired data made on individuals of 2 different sample
Test if the difference between the means is real or not
Paired’t’ test
Applied to paired data obtained from one sample only

Question 7. Statistical analysis.
Answer:

Statistical Analysis

Statistical analysis is based on
Population
- Statistical analysis is the collection of units of observations that are of interest and is the target of the investigation
- Statistical analysis is essential to identify the population clearly and precisely
- The success of the investigation will depend on the identification of the population
Variable
- The variableis a state, condition, concept/ event whose value is free to vary within the population

Classification Of Statistical Analysis:

Independent
Manipulated/ treated in a study

Statistical Analysis Dependent:

The result of the independent variable
Confounding
- Confound the effect of the independent variable on the dependent
Background
- Considered for possible inclusion in the study
Probability distribution
- The probability distribution is a link between population and its characteristics
- A probability distribution is a way to enumerate the different values the variable can have and how frequently each value appears in the population
- A probability distribution is characterized by parameters i.e. quantities

Question 8. Standard deviation.
Answer:

Standard Deviation

Standard deviation is the square root of the mean of the squared deviations from arithmetic
Standard deviation is the most commonly used measure of dispersion

Standard Deviation Synonym

Root Mean Square Deviation

Standard deviation Calculation

Calculate the mean of the series, X
Take the deviation mean X- X,
Square these deviations and add them up to 5^ 2
Divide the result by the total number of observation
Obtain the square root of it (Standard deviation)

Standard Deviation Significance:

The greater the standard deviation, the greater the magnitude of dispersion
The lesser the standard deviation, the higher the degree of uniformity of observation

Question 9. Bar diagram/ charts.
Answer:

Bar Diagram

Bar diagram is a diagram of columns/ bars
The height of the bars determines the value of the particular data
The width of the bar remains the same
The bars are separated by spaces
The bars can be either vertical/ horizontal

Bar Diagram Types:

1. Bar Diagram Simple Bar Chart

Represents only one variable

2. Bar Diagram Multiple Bar Chart

Consist of a set of bars of the same width corresponding to the different sections without any gap in between

3. Bar Diagram Component Bar Chart

Individual bars are divided into 2 or more parts Used to compare the sub-groups

Basics In Statistics Short Question And Answers

Question 1. Primary and secondary data.
Answer:

Secondary Data Primary Data:

Obtained directly from an individual
secondary data Primary Data is first-hand information

Secondary Data Advantage:

Precise information
Reliable

Secondary Data Disadvantages:

Time-consuming
Expensive

Secondary Data Methods:

Direct personal interviews
Oral health examination
Questionnaire

Secondary Data Secondary Data:

Obtained from outside sources
- Used to serve the purpose of the objective of the study
- Example: Hospital records

Question 2. Frequency polygon.
Answer:

Frequency Polygon

Pictorial presentation of data

Frequency Polygon Method:

Obtained from histogram
Mark the midpoint over histogram bars
Next, connect these points in a straight line
Example. Agewise prevalence of dental caries

Question 3. Stratified random sampling.
Answer:

Stratified Random Sampling

The population to be sampled is subdivided into strata
A simple random sample is then chosen from it
Used for a heterogeneous population
Stratified random sampling ensures more representativeness, provides greater accuracy and can concentrate over a wider area

Question 4. Mode.
Answer:

Mode

Mode is a value occurring with the greatest frequency

Mode Advantage:

Eliminates extreme variation
Easily located
Easy to understand

Mode Disadvantage:

Uncertain location e Not exactly defined
Not useful in a small number of cases

Question 5. Null hypothesis.
Answer:

Null Hypothesis

The null hypothesis asserts that there is no real difference between the two groups under consideration and the difference found is accidental and arises out of sampling variation
The null hypothesis is the first step in the testing of the hypothesis

Question 6. Variable.
Answer:

Variable

Variable is a state, condition, concept, or event whose value is free to vary within the population

Classification Of Variable:

Independent
- Manipulated/ treated in a study
Dependent:
- The result of an independent variable
Confounding
- Confound the effect of the independent variable on the dependent
Background
- Considered for possible inclusion in the study

Question 7. Qualitative data.
Answer:

Qualitative Data

When data is collected on the basis of attributes/ qualities like sex, it is called qualitative data

Question 8. Chi-square test.
Answer:

Chi-Square Test Uses:

Test whether the difference in the distribution of attributes in different groups is due to sampling variation or not
Test the significance of the difference between 2 proportion
Used when there are more than 2 groups to be compared

Basics In Statistics Viva Voce

Mean, median and mode are measures of central tendency
Range, standard deviation, and coefficient of variation are measures of dispersion
The range is the difference between the smallest item and the value of the largest item
A census is a collection of information from all the individuals in a population
Sampling is the collection of information from representative units in a sample
Standard deviation is the most important and widely used measure of studying dispersion
A bar diagram is used to represent qualitative data
Histogram used to depict quantitative data
A frequency polygon is used to represent the frequency distribution of quantitative data
A pie diagram is used to show percentage breakdowns for qualitative data
A line diagram is useful to study the changes in values in the variable over time
Pictogram is the method to impress the frequency of occurrence of events to the common man
The chi-square test is a non-parametric test for qualitative data
For large samples, z test is preferred
For small samples, a t-test is preferred
The value of the mean in a normal distribution is zero
Standard deviation is also called root mean square deviation
The median is also called the 50th percentile
The standard error of the mean depicts the deviation