Haritha

NCERT Solutions For Class 6 History Chapter 5 Kingdoms Kings And An Early Republic

by

NCERT Solutions For Class 6 History Chapter 5  Kingdoms Kings And An Early Republic Exercises

Question 1. State whether true or false:

1. Rajas who let the Ashvamedha horse pass through their lands were invited to the sacrifice.
Answer: True

2. The charioteer sprinkled sacred water on the king.
Answer: False

3. Archaeologists have found palaces in the settlements of the janapadas.
Answer:  False

4. Pots to store grain were made out of Painted Grey Ware.
Answer:  False

Class 6 History Chapter 5 NCERT Solutions

Read and Learn More NCERT Solutions For Class 6 Social Science

5. Many cities in Mahajanapadas were fortified.
Answer:  True.

Question 2. Fill in the chart given below with the terms: hunter-gatherers, farmers, traders, craftspersons, and herders.

 

Answer:

NCERT Solutions For Class 6 History Chapter 5 Kingdoms-Kings-And-An-Early-Republic-Paid-Tax-For-Raja-Of-The-Mahajanapada

Question 3 Who were the groups who could not participate in the assemblies of the ganas?
Answer:

  1. Women,
  2. Dasas, and
  3. Karmakaras (or so-called shudras) were three groups who could not participate in the assemblies of the ganas or sangas.

NCERT Solutions For Class 6 History Chapter 5 Kingdoms Kings And An Early Republic

Question 4. Why did the rajas of Mahajanapadas build forts?
Answer:

  1. The rajas of Mahajanapadas build forts to protect their capital city.
  2. Forts were probably built because people were afraid of attacks from other kings and needed protection.
  3. It is also likely that some rulers wanted to show how rich and powerful they were by building really large, tall and impressive walls around their cities. Also in this way, the land and the people living inside the fortified area could be controlled more easily by the king.

Question 5. Find out whether the groups mentioned in answer 3 have voting rights at present.
Answer:

Yes, all the groups (full citizens of a state or country of age 18 or above including men, women, etc.) have voting rights at present.

Kingdoms, Kings, and Early Republic Class 6 History NCERT

Question 6. Make a list of all those who would be present at the sacrifice. Which are the categories that are described in terms of their occupation?
Answer:

  1. The raja who wanted to perform the sacrifice.
  2. Specially trained priests.
  3. A Charioteer, who was a companion of the raja.
  4. Some relatives of the raja, particularly his wives and sons.
  5. Other small rajas, were simply spectators.
  6. The ordinary people, the Vish or Vaishya, who brought gifts for the king.

All are described as per their occupation.

Question 7. Is there a crop in this list that was not mentioned?
Answer:

All the crops like rice, wheat, barley, mustard etc. except sugarcane and cotton.

Question 8. List two ways in which the rajas of the mahajanapadas were different from those mentioned in the Rigveda.
Answer:

There were the following differences:

  • The Rajas of Rigveda had no capitals or palaces. The rajas of mahajanapadas had capitals, palaces and sometimes fortified ones.
  • Rigvedic rajas had no regular army, but the later rajas had regular armies who were paid salaries.
  • Unlike mahajanapadas, Rigvedic rajas collected no taxes.

Question 9. What do you think would have been provided by hunters and gatherers?
Answer:

Hunters and gatherers would have given forest produce as taxes to the rulers.

Question 10. Can you think why kings would encourage changes in agriculture?
Answer:

Kings encouraged the changes in agriculture as it increased production If more production, people would be more prosperous. Raja can get more tax.

Question 11. In what ways were the armies of mahajanapadas different from those described in the Rigveda?
Answer:

Armies Differed In The Following Ways:

  • There were no regular armies. Most men took part in the war. During mahajanapadas, there were regular armies who were paid salaries.
  • Matters of war and peace were discussed in the assemblies. Raja decided on the matter in the later days.

Question 12. In what ways was the Vajji Sangha different from the other mahajanapadas? Try and list at least three differences.
Answer:

Three Differences:

  1. They held full and frequent public assemblies.
  2. They met and acted together.
  3. They followed established rules.

NCERT Solutions for Kingdoms, Kings, and an Early Republic Chapter 5

NCERT Solutions For Class 6 History Chapter 5  Kingdoms Kings And An Early Republic Very Short Answer Type Questions

Question 1 What is the most important power of the people in a democracy?
Answer:

The people can choose their own rulers in a democracy.

Question 2. What process has made it common for some men to become rulers during the last fifty years or so?
Answer:

Choosing leaders or rulers by voting is something that has become common during the last fifty years or so.

Question 3. What was the ‘Ashvamedha’ sacrifice?
Answer:

Ashvamedha or the ‘horse sacrifice’ was a ritual. A horse was let loose guarded by Raja’s men. If the raja of the other kingdom stopped it, he had to fight. If they allowed it to pass through their kingdom, it meant they accepted the strength of the other ruler.

Question 4. Who was excluded from the rituals?
Answer:

Shudras or the Dasas were excluded from the religious rituals.

Question 5. Name two janapadas’ of the north.
Answer:

Hastinapur near Meerut and Atranjikhera near Etah.

Question 6. Why did the rajas of ‘mahajanapadas’ collect taxes?
Answer:

Rulers were building forts and maintaining armies, for this they required funds and resources. Therefore they collected taxes.

Chapter 5 Kingdoms, Kings, and an Early Republic Class 6 Solutions

NCERT Solutions For Class 6 History Chapter 5  Kingdoms Kings And An Early Republic Short Answer Type Questions

Question 1. How did men become rulers in the past?
Answer:

  1. Some of the rajas (rulers) were probably chosen by the jana, the people.
  2. Around 3,000 years ago, we find some changes taking place in how rajas were chosen.
  3. Some men became rajas (rulers) by performing very big sacrifices.

Question 2. Explain the term later Vedic.
Answer:

  • We have many books that were composed in north India, especially in the areas of the Ganga and the Yamuna, during the later Rigvedic age.
  • As these books were composed after the Rigveda, are generally called later Vedic (or later Vedic literature). These include the Samaveda, Yajurveda and Atharvaveda, as well as other books.
  • These were composed by priests and described how rituals were to be performed. They also contained rules about society.

Question 3. Write a short note on the composition of the society of the Later Vedic Period.
Answer:

  1. There were several different groups in society at this time—priests and warriors, farmers, herders, traders, craftspersons, labourers, fishing folk and forest people.
  2. Some priests and warriors were rich. Also, some farmers and traders were rich.
  3. Others including many herders, craftspersons, labourers, fishing folk hunters and gatherers were poor.

Question 4. Write a brief note on Painted grey ware.
Answer:

The Painted Grey Ware

  • Plates and bowls are the most common vessels made out of Painted Grey Ware. These are extremely fine to touch, with a nice, smooth surface.
  • Perhaps Painted Grey Wares were used on special occasions, for important people and to serve special types of food.

Question 5. Write the different roles performed by people present at the sacrifice.
Answer:

The raja was the main figure in the ritual.

  • Raja Charioteer, his companion in battle field chanted tales of exploits.
  • Raja wives and relatives performed minor rituals.
  • Other rajas watched the sacrifice as spectators.
  • Priests performed the rituals including sprinkling of sacred water.
  • Vish or Vaishyas brought gifts.

Question 6. How were forests important for Magadha?
Answer:

Parts of Magadha were forested (present-day Jharkhand)

  • Elephants living there could be captured and trained for the army.
  • Wood for building houses, carts chariots etc.
  • Iron ore mines could be tapped for tools and weapons.

Question 7. Write a short note on Alexander.
Answer:

Alexander of Macedonia wanted to become a world conqueror:

  • Alexander conquered parts of Egypt and West Asia and came to India.
  • On the banks of river Beas, his soldiers refused to go further.
  • Alexander could not fulfil his dream.

Question 8. What was the governance system of the ganas or the sanghas?
Answer:

In gana or a sangha, there were many rulers. Sometimes thousands of rajas ruled together

  • The rajas performed rituals together.
  • They met in assemblies to make decisions through discussions and debates.
  • They discussed issues related to war and peace in the assembly.
  • Women and dasas were not allowed to participate.

NCERT Solutions For Class 6 History Chapter 5  Kingdoms Kings And An Early Republic Long Answer Type Questions

Question 1. Discuss the four Varnas of the later Vedic period.
Answer:

The Four Varnas. The priests divided people of the ancient India (of the Later Vedic Age) into four groups, called Varnas. According to them, each Varna had a different set of functions to perform.

NCERT Solutions For Class 6 History Chapter 5 Kingdoms-Kings-And-An-Early-Republic-Four-Varnas

NCERT Class 6 History Kingdoms, Kings, and Early Republic Summary

Question 2. What was the basis of the Varna system,, according to the priests? Why did people oppose the system of Varnas?
Answer:

  1. Basis Of The Varnas
    • The priests declared that four groups of people were decided on the basis of birth. For instance, if one’s father and mother were Brahmins one would automatically become a Brahmin and so on.
    • Later on, the priests classified some people as untouchable. These included some crafts persons, hunters and gatherers, as well as people who helped perform burials and cremations.
    • The priests said that contact with these groups was polluting,
  2. Causes Of Opposition To The System Of Varnas. Many people did not accept the system of Varna laid down by the Brahmins
    • Some kings thought they were superior to the priests.
    • Other people felt that birth could not be a basis for deciding which area people belonged to.
    • Besides, some people felt that there should be no differences among people based on occupation.
    • Other people favoured that everybody should be able to perform rituals.
    • Some people condemned the practice of untouchability.

Question 3. Who ruled janapada? Where people were living and what was their occupation?
Answer:

Rajas who performed the big sacrifices became the rulers of janapadas:

  • People here lived in huts and reared cattle and other animals.
  • They grew a variety of crops like rice, wheat, barley, mustard etc.
  • They made grey and red earthen pots.
  • Some people were herders, traders and farmers.
  • Some people were hunters, craft persons and gatherers.
  • Some janapadas became important and were later called mahajanapadas.

Question 4. What type of taxes were collected by the rulers?
Answer:

Rulers collected the following taxes for fortification and maintaining armies:

  • Taxes on crops which was 176th of the produce.
  • This was known as Bhaga
  • Taxes on craft persons in the form of labour performed for the king.
  • Herders paid taxes in the form of animals and their produce.
  • There was a trade tax on goods bought and sold.
  • Hunters and gatherers provided forest produce to the rajas,

Question 5. What changes were brought to agriculture during this period?
Answer:

There were two major changes in agriculture

  • Iron ploughshare were used to turn over the soil.
  • Transplanting of paddy began. Instead of scattering seeds, saplings were grown and then planted.
  • This led to increased production. The work of Dasas increased.

NCERT Solutions For Class 6 History Chapter 5  Kingdoms Kings And An Early Republic Map Skills

On the outline map of India locate the janapadas and mahajanapadas.

NCERT Solutions For Class 6 History Chapter 5 Kingdoms-Kings-And-An-Early-Republic-Map-For-Janapads-Mahajanapadas-And-Cities

  • Kuru
  • Panchala
  • Kosala
  • Gandhara
  • Magadha
  • Anga
  • Avanti

History Chapter 5 NCERT Solutions: Kingdoms, Kings, and an Early Republic

NCERT Solutions For Class 6 History Chapter 5  Kingdoms Kings And An Early Republic Multiple Choice Questions

Choose The Correct Answer:

Question 1. How did men become rulers around 3,000 years ago?

  1. By voting
  2. By Ashvamedha
  3. None of these
  4. Both (1) and (2)

Answer: 2. By Ashvamedha

Question 2. Who guarded the horse?

  1. Janas
  2. Raja’s men
  3. Ordinary people
  4. All of these

Answer: 2. Raja’s men

Question 3. Who brought gifts for rulers?

  1. Vaishyas
  2. Shudras
  3. Brahmins
  4. None of these

Answer: 1. Vaishyas

Question 4. Where is Hastinapur located?

  1. Near Kolkata
  2. Near Mumbai
  3. Near Meerut
  4. Near Agra

Answer: 3. Near Meerut

Kingdoms, Kings, and an Early Republic Class 6 History Notes

Question 5. Where is Purana Qila situated?

  1. Delhi
  2. Agra
  3. Kolkata
  4. None of these

Answer: 1. Delhi

Question 6. In what mode were the payments done?

  1. Punch marked coins
  2. Paper notes
  3. Gold coins
  4. Silver coins

Answer: 1. Punch marked coins

Question 7. Why did the rulers collect regular taxes?

  1. For building huge forts
  2. For maintaining big armies
  3. Both (1) and (2)
  4. None of these

Answer: 3. Both (1) and (2)

Question 8. How did herders pay taxes?

  1. Forest products
  2. Animals and animal products
  3. By labouring
  4. None of these

Answer: 2. Animals and animal products

Question 9. Why was the river Ganga important for people?

  1. For transport
  2. For water supply
  3. To make the land fertile
  4. All of these

Answer: 4. All of these

Question 10. Who could not participate in the assemblies?

  1. Women
  2. Dasas
  3. Kammakaras
  4. All of these

Answer: 4. All of these

Class 6 History NCERT Solutions Chapter 5: Kings, Kingdoms, and Early Republic

NCERT Solutions For Class 6 History Chapter 5  Kingdoms Kings And An Early Republic Objective Type Questions

Question 1. Fill in the blanks with appropriate words:

1. _______ turned into mahajanapadas about 2500 years ago.
Answer: Janapadas

2. The present name of Rajgriha is _______
Answer: Rajgir

3. Alexander’s troops stopped at the banks of river _________
Answer: Beas

4. The taxes on crops were called _________
Answer: Bhaga

5. Last of the ganas were conquered by the _________
Answer: Guptas

Question 2. State whether the given statement is true or false:

1. Ashvamedha was a sacrifice of a cow.
Answer: False

2. Farmers paid 1/6th of produce as tax.
Answer: True

3. Painted grey ware is a type of house.
Answer: False

Class 6 History NCERT Solutions Chapter 5: Kings, Kingdoms, and Early Republic

4. If the rajas allowed the horse to pass it meant they accepted the raja, owner of the house, as stronger.
Answer: True

5. Parts of Egypt and West Asia were conquered by Alexander.
Answer: True

6. Present-day Patna was earlier known as Pataliputra.
Answer: True

Question 3. Match the contents of Column A with that of Column B.

NCERT Solutions For Class 6 History Chapter 5 Kingdoms-Kings-And-An-Early-Republic-Match-The-Column

Answer: 1-d, 2-a, 3-c, 4-e, 5-b

 

NCERT Solutions For Class 6 History Chapter 3 In The Earliest Cities

by

NCERT Solutions For Class 6 History Chapter 3 In The Earliest Cities Exercises

Question 1. How do archaeologists know that cloth was used in the Harappan civilisation?
Answer:

  1. According to archaeologists cotton was probably grown in Mehrgarh about 7,000 years ago.
  2. Actual pieces of cloth were found attached to the lid of a silver vase and some copper objects at Mohenjodaro.
  3. Archaeologists have also found spindle whorls, made of terracotta and faience. These were used to spin thread.
  4. We also have indirect evidence to show how cloth was decorated. For example, a stone statue of an important man found at Mohenjodaro shows him wearing an embroidered garment.

Read and Learn More NCERT Solutions For Class 6 Social Science

Question 2. Match the columns

NCERT Solutions For Class 6 History Chapter 3 In-The-Earliest-Cities-Match-The-Columns

Answer:

NCERT Solutions For Class 6 History Chapter 3 In-The-Earliest-Cities-Math-The-Column

In the Earliest Cities NCERT Solutions Chapter 3

Question 3. Why were metals, writing, the wheel, and the plough important for the Harappans?
Answer:

  1. Metals: The Harappans made tools from copper. They also made ornaments from gold and silver. Tools and weapons, vessels were made from different metals.
  2. Writing: Writing was very important for the Harappans. There were scribes, people who knew how to write. Scribes helped prepare the seals and perhaps wrote on other materials that have not survived.
  3. Wheel: The Harappans used the wheel in carts. They also used wheels for spinning. The wheel was used by potters to make or shape pots and other things.
  4. Plough: Plough was used to prepare land for farming by the Harappans.

Question 4. Make a list of all the terracotta toys shown in the lesson. What do you think children would have enjoyed playing with the most?
Answer:

List Of The Terracotta Toys

  1. A toy cart made of clay.
  2. Small clay carts resembling the modern ekhas.
  3. Puppets
  4. Whistles are made in the form of birds and rattles of all kinds.
  5. Marbles
  6. Dolls
  7. Models of different cattle and animals. (Humped bull, Rhinoceros, etc.)
  8. Jewellery articles.

We think that girls would have enjoyed dolls and puppets most, while the male children would have enjoyed carts or has and rattles.

NCERT Solutions For Class 6 History Chapter 3 In The Earliest Cities

Question 5. Make a list of what the Harappans ate, and put a tick mark against the things you eat today.
Answer:

The Harappans used to eat the following articles/things

NCERT Solutions For Class 6 History Chapter 3 In-The-Earliest-Cities-Harappans-Food-Articles

Class 6 History Chapter 3 In the Earliest Cities Solutions

Question 6. Do you think that the life of farmers and herders who supplied food to the Harappan cities was different from that of the farmers and herders? Give reasons for your answer.
Answer:

Yes, I think that the life of farmers and herders who supplied food to the Harappan cities was different from that of the farmers and herders.

  1. We know from the remains of plants and bones of animals that the contemporary farmers and herders of the Harappans grew more cereals and collected many types of fruits and other things. They grew wheat, barley, pulses, peas, rice, sesame, linseed and mustard.
  2. A new tool, the plough, was used to dig the earth for turning the soil and sowing seeds by the farmers of the Harappan times.
  3. The farmers and herders of the Indus Valley had relations with better or more civilized people who had better houses, roads, drain-system, knowledge of writing and cities. The farmers and herders of the last chapter (or Stone Age) did not know the use of metals.

Question 7. Describe three important buildings in your city or village. Are they located in a special part of the settlement (for example: The Centre)? What are the activities that take place in these buildings?
Answer:

In Our City (Or Village) The Following Three Important Buildings Are Located:

  1. Community Hall or Gram Panchayat Bhawan or Municipal Committee Bhawan
  2. School Building
  3. Hospital
  4. Temple or Mosque or Church or Gurudwara

The Following Activities Take Place In These Buildings Respectively:

NCERT Solutions For Class 6 History Chapter 3

Question 8. Are there any old buildings in your locality? Find out how old they are and who looks after them.
Answer:

Yes, there are some old buildings in our locality. These buildings are looked after by a government department. The name of this department is Archaeological Survey of India.

Question 9. Do you think it is important to preserve old buildings?
Answer:

Yes, it is important to preserve old buildings because they give us a lot of information about the material used, construction methods, need for the building etc. They help us to know about our past.

NCERT Solutions for Class 6 History Chapter 3

Question 10. List at least two differences between the houses.
Answer:

Houses In These Cities Were Different From Earlier Ones:

  1. These houses were planned and made of burnt bricks whereas the houses
  2. They have wells or storage places and a covered drainage system. The houses of the earlier period had partitions which could have been used for storage.
  3. Houses of these cities were 1-2 storeyed whereas earlier houses were square or rectangular with pits dug in the ground.

Question 11. Make a list of people who lived in the city.
Answer:

Rulers, scribes and crafts persons along with traders lived in the cities.

Question 12. Was metal used in the villages? Was stone used to make weights?
Answer:

No, metal was not used. Stone was not used for weights.

Question  13. How were goods carried from one place to another?
Answer:

Goods were carried through carts or boats.

NCERT Solutions For Class 6 History Chapter 3 In The Earliest Cities Very Short Answer Type Questions

Question 1. Write the names of the cities related to the earliest civilisation of the Indian subcontinent.
Answer:

  1. Mohenjodaro
  2. Harappa
  3. Rakhigarhi
  4. Dholavira
  5. Kalibangan
  6. Lothal

Question 2. Which was the earliest city discovered in the Indian subcontinent? Where is it situated nowadays?
Answer:

Mohenjodaro in Sindh. It is in Pakistan now.

Question 3. When were the earliest cities of the Harappan civilisation built?
Answer:

The earliest cities of Harappan civilisation were built about 4700 years ago.

Question 4. Write one major, impressive and unique feature of the earliest cities of India.
Answer:

Covered Drains was one major, impressive and unique feature of the earliest cities of India. Even now, many drains in India are open.

In the Earliest Cities: NCERT Solutions Chapter 3

Question 5. By what name is the Indus Valley Civilisation now called?
Answer:

The Harappan Culture.

Question 6. Into how many parts were the cities of the Mohenjodaro and Harappa divided?
Answer:

Both cities were divided into two main parts

  1. The upper part is called the citadel.
  2. The lower part is called the lower town.

Question 7. Write two main characteristics of houses in Harappan City.
Answer:

  1. Generally, houses were either one or two storeys high with room built around a courtyard.
  2. Most houses had a separate bathing area and some had wells to supply water.

Question 8. Name the countries with whom the Harappans had trade relations.
Answer:

Oman, Afghanistan, Iran.

Question 9. Which is considered the main foreign trade centre in India during the time of Indus Valley Civilization?
Answer:

Lothal (Gujarat).

Question 10. What was Citadel?
Answer:

The westernmost part of most of the cities was higher but smaller. This was the ‘Citadel’.

Question 11. Define a “Specialist”.
Answer:

A specialist was a person who was trained to do only one kind of work like cutting stones or polishing beads etc.

NCERT Solutions For Class 6 History Chapter 3 In The Earliest Cities Short Answer Type Questions

Question 1. Describe the drain system of the Harappans.
Answer:

  1. In cities related to the Harappan civilisation, each drain had a gentle slope so that water could flow through it.
  2. Very often, drains in houses were connected to those in streets and smaller drains led to bigger ones.
  3. As the drains were covered, inspection holes were provided at intervals to clean them.
    • All three (i.e. drains, houses and streets) were probably planned and built at the same time.

Question 2.

  1. Where do we find early cities of the Indian subcontinent?
  2. What unique objects have been found by archaeologists in these cities?

Answer:

  1. The early cities of the Indian subcontinent are found in present-day Pakistan, and in India. In India, these are found in Gujarat, Rajasthan, Haryana, Western parts of U.P. and Punjab.
  2. Archaeologists have found a set of unique objects in almost all these cities:
    1. Red pottery painted with designs in black,
    2. Stone weights,
    3. Seals with writing,
    4. Special beads,
    5. Copper tools, and
    6. Long stone blades.

Question 3. Write a short note on ‘The Cattle Rearing of the Harappans.’
Answer:

The Cattle Rearing

  1. The Harappans reared cattle, sheep, goats, and buffalo.
  2. Water and pasture were available around settlements.
  3. In the dry summer months, large herds of animals were probably taken to greater distances in search of grass and water.

Chapter 3 In the Earliest Cities NCERT Class 6

Question 4. Give one word for each of the following terms or sentences:

  1. The stage when the culture of a country or region is developed and advanced.
  2. Clay tablets and idols.
  3. A place where surplus grains were stored.
  4. A place where ships are loaded, unloaded and repaired.

Answer:

  1. Civilisation,
  2. Terracotta,
  3. Granaries,
  4. Dockyard.

Question 5. Describe the city of Dholavira in Gujarat.
Answer:

NCERT Solutions For Class 6 History Chapter 3 In-The-Earliest-Cities-City-Of-Dholavira-In-Gujarat

Question 6. Write a note on the city of Lothal.
Answer:

Lothal was situated beside a tributary of Sabarmati, close to the Gulf of Khambat.

  • Semi-precious stones were available nearby.
  • Lothal was a centre for objects made of shells, metal and stone.
  • Lothal had a storehouse in the city, where many seals were found.
  • A workshop for making beads and items from it was also found here.
  • A dockyard for loading, unloading and trade was also discovered.

Question 7. What do you know about seals and sealings?
Answer:

Seals may have been used to mark the parcels/bags, being sent from one place to another. After a bag was closed, a layer of wet clay was put on the knot and the seal was pressed on it. This impression of the seal was called sealing.

NCERT Solutions For Class 6 History Chapter 3 In The Earliest Cities Long Answer Type Questions

Question 1. Describe the main features of the Great Bath of Mohenjodaro.
Answer:

The Great Bath

  1. In Mohenjodaro, a very special tank, which archaeologists call the Great Bath, was built in its Citadel Area.
  2. This special tank was made of bricks, coated with plaster and made water-tight with a layer of natural tar.
  3. There were steps leading down to it from two sides, while there were rooms on all sides.
  4. Water was probably brought in from a well, and drained out after use.
  5. Perhaps important people took a dip in this tank on special occasions.

Question 2. Write in brief the story of Harappa’s finding.
Answer:

The Story Of Harappa

  1. About 152 years ago (1855 A.D.), when railway lines were being laid down for the first time in west Punjab engineers stumbled upon the site of Harappa in present-day Pakistan. To them, it appeared like a mound which was a rich source of ready-made, high-quality bricks.
  2. The labourers (working on railway lines) carried off thousands of bricks from the walls of the old building of the city (later named as Harappa) to construct railway lines. Many buildings were completely destroyed.
  3. Then, nearly eighty-five years ago (1920 A.D.), archaeologists found the site and realized that this was one of the oldest cities in the subcontinent. As this was the first city to be discovered.

NCERT History Chapter 3

Question 3. Discuss in brief the life in Harappa City.
Answer:

Life In The Harappa City

  1. Probably Harappa was a busy place. There were people who planned the construction of special buildings in the city. These were probably the rulers.
  2. Most probably the rulers of the Harappan city sent people to distant lands to get metal, precious stones and other things that they desired or required.
  3. The rulers may have kept the most valuable objects, such as ornaments of gold and silver or beautiful beads for themselves.
  4. And there were scribes, people who knew how to write, who helped prepare the seals and perhaps wrote (or engraved) on other materials.
  5. There were craftspersons—men and women making all kinds of things.
  6. Terracotta toys have been found and children might have played with them.

Question 4. Write a short note on the Script of the Harappan people.
Answer:

  • Historians believe that the people of the Indus Valley civilisation were literate. Many seals have been discovered. We can note lines (or symbols) of signs on the top of several seals of the Harappan people. These are parts of what historians call a script. This is the earliest form of writing known in the subcontinent.
  • Scholars have made many efforts to read these signs (or decipher the Harappan script), but we still do not know exactly what they mean.

Question 5. Describe in short different objects made and found in different Harappan cities or sites.
Answer:

  1. Materials used by the people of Harappan cities are made of stone, and metal including copper, tin, bronze, gold, silver and shell.
  2. Vessels and Ornaments. Copper and bronze were used to make vessels and ornaments.
  3. Beads. Perhaps the most striking finds are those of beads. The stone was cut, shaped, polished and finally a hole was bored through the centre so that a string could be passed through it.
  4. Weights. Stones were used to make weights. These were probably used to weigh precious stones or metals.
  5. Seals. The Harappans also made seals out of stone. These are generally rectangular and usually have animals. Bull or a Rhinoceros) carved on them.
  6. Faience. Unlike stone or shell, which are found naturally, faience is artificially produced. A gum was used to shape sand or powdered quartz into an object.
  7. Pottery. The Harappans also made pottery with beautiful designs.

Question 6. What are raw materials? How did the Harappans make their provision?
Answer:

  1. Raw Materials Meaning
    • Raw materials are substances that are either found naturally (such as wood, or ores of metals) or produced by farmers or herders.
    • These are generally processed to produce finishing goods.
    • For instance, cotton, produced by farmers, is a raw material that is processed to make cloth.
  2. Provision or Search of Raw Materials
    • While some of the raw materials that the Harappans used were available locally many items such as copper, tin, gold, silver and precious stones had to be brought from distant places.
      • The Harappans probably got copper from Rajasthan and even from Oman.
      • Tin, which was mixed with copper to produce bronze, may have been brought from Afghanistan and Iran.
      • Gold could have come all the way from Karnataka and
      • Precious stones from Gujarat, Iran and Afghanistan.

Question 7. Discuss ‘agriculture’ as an important occupation of the Harappans.
Or
How was food provided to the people in the Harappan cities?
Answer:

Agriculture of the Harappans or Food for People in the Cities

  1. While many people lived in the cities, others grew crops and reared animals.
  2. We know from the remains of plants that the Harappans grew wheat, barley, pulses, peas, rice, sesame, linseed and mustard.
  3. A new tool, the plough, was used to dig the earth for turning the soil and planting seeds.
  4. As this region does not receive heavy rainfall, some form of irrigation may have been used.
  5. Different types of cattle were also used for food supply. They also collected fruits like ber (%), caught fish and hunted wild animals like the antelope.

History Chapter 3 In the Earliest Cities Study Material

Question 8. What were the causes of the end of the Harappan culture?
Or
Discuss the mystery of the end of the Harappan civilization.
Answer:

The Mystery of the End of the Harappans or the Probable Causes of the downfall of the Harappan Civilisation. Nearly 3900 years ago we find the beginning of a major change in Harappan cities or sites

  1. People stopped living in many of the cities (it) Writing, seals and weights were no longer used
  2. Raw Materials brought from long distances became rare
  3. In Mohenjodaro, we find that garbage piled up on the streets, the drainage system broke down, and new, less impressive houses that were built encroached onto the streets.

Harappan culture Causes. The following causes were possibly responsible for the end of the Harappan culture

  1. Some scholars suggest that the rivers dried up.
  2. Others suggest that there was deforestation. This could have happened because fuel was required for baking bricks and for melting copper ores. Besides, grazing by large herds of cattle, sheep and goats may have destroyed the green cover.
  3. In some areas there were floods.
  4. Perhaps the rulers lost control but none of these reasons can explain the end of all the cities.

In short, we can say that we are not the same about the cultures of the end of the Harappan culture. However, flooding or a river drying up would have had an effect in only some areas.

NCERT Solutions For Class 6 History Chapter 3 In The Earliest Cities Multiple Choice Questions

Choose The Correct Answer:

Question 1. When did Harappan cities develop?

  1. About 4,700 years ago
  2. About 3,700 years ago
  3. About 2,700 years ago
  4. About 1,700 years ago

Answer: 1. About 4,700 years ago

Question 2. How many storeys of houses were generally found in Harappan?

  1. One or two storeys
  2. Four to five storeys
  3. Multi storeys
  4. None of these

Answer: 1. One or two storeys

Question 3. Where did the craftspeople make the things in the earliest cities?

  1. In their own homes
  2. In special workshops
  3. Both (1) and (2)
  4. None of these

Answer: 3. Both (1) and (2)

NCERT Solutions Chapter 3 In the Earliest Cities Class 6

Question 4. Most of the things found by the archaeologists were made of which metal?

  1. Bronze
  2. Copper and gold
  3. Silver
  4. All of these

Answer: 4. All of these

Question 5. What was the thing used to shape sand or powdered quartz into an object?

  1. Gum
  2. Ink
  3. Nails
  4. Rubber

Answer: 1. Gum

Question 6. Which colours were used for glazing?

  1. Black or white
  2. Red or yellow
  3. Blue or sea green
  4. Pink or brown

Answer: 3. Blue or sea green

NCERT Solutions Class 6 History Chapter 3 In the Earliest Cities

Question 7. Who supplied food to craftpersons, scribes and rulers in the cities?

  1. Local citizens
  2. Farmers and herders
  3. Postmen
  4. All of these

Answer: 2. Farmers and herders

Question 8. How did the Harappans irrigate their fields and grow plants?

  1. Rainfall
  2. Stored water
  3. Streams
  4. Rivers

Answer: 2. Stored water

Question 9. Where did the boats and ships come from from the sea and rivers?

  1. Ports
  2. Dockyards
  3. None of these
  4. Both (1) and (2)

Answer: 2. Dockyards

 

NCERT Solutions For Class 6 History Chapter 1 Introduction What Where How And When

by

NCERT Solutions For Class 6 History Chapter 1  Introduction What Where How And When Exercises

Question 1. Match the following

NCERT Solutions For Class 6 History Chapter 1 Introduction-What-Where-How-And-When-Math-The-Followings-2

Answer:

NCERT Solutions For Class 6 History Chapter 1 Introduction-What-Where-How-And-When-Match-The-Columns

NCERT Solutions Class 6 History Chapter 1 What, Where, How, and When

NCERT Solutions For Class 6 History Chapter 1 Introduction What Where How And When

Read and Learn More NCERT Solutions For Class 6 Social Science

Question 2. List one major difference between manuscripts and inscriptions.
Answer:

NCERT Solutions For Class 6 History Chapter 1 Introduction-What-Where-How-And-When-Differences-Between-Manuscripts-And-Inscriptions

Question 3. Return to Rasheeda’s question. Can you think of some answers to it?
Answer:

Yes, I can think of some answers to it.

  1. We can learn about the past by studying history. We can use manuscripts, inscriptions, or old objects.
  2. History will help us understand how this present evolved. It will tell us about the past and the present.

Question 4. Make a list of all the objects that archaeologists may find. Which of these could be made of stone?
Answer:

While exploring and excavating archaeologists may find tools, weapons, pots, ornaments, coins, remains of buildings, inscriptions sculptures, paintings, etc.

Out of these sculptures, building remains, could have been made of stone.

Question 5. Why do you think ordinary men and women did not generally keep records of what they did?
Answer:

We think ordinary men and women did not generally keep records of what they did due to the following reasons:

  1. Ordinary Men And Women did not know the art of writing in the beginning.
  2. Ordinary Men And Women were not interested in such work.
  3. Ordinary Men And Women do not know the importance of keeping records of the events. The lack of historical sense was mainly responsible for it.

Question 6. Describe at least two ways in which you think the lives of kings would have been different from those of farmers.
Answer:

  1. Kings set up large kingdoms and lived in palaces whereas the farmers lived in small houses or huts. There was a difference in their food, dress, and way of living.
  2. Kings depended on farmers for the production of food and at least in this matter farmers were self-dependent.
  3. Kings kept records of their lives, wars, victories, etc.

Question 7. List at least five different crafts that you know about today. Are the craftspersons

  1. Men
  2. Women
  3. Both men and women?

Answer:

  1. The Crafts That We Know About Today Are: Weavers, Blacksmiths, goldsmiths, carpenters, masons, etc.
  2. In all these crafts we find men and women both.

There are crafts like masons, plumbers, carpenters, etc. where we generally find men.

Introduction to History: What, Where, How, and When Class 6 NCERT Solutions

Question 8. What were the subjects on which books were written in the past? Which of these would you like to read?
Answer:

In the past books were written on subjects like religious beliefs and practices, medicine, poetry, the lives of kings and their victories, science, epics, etc. It would be interesting to read the Vedas, epics, or books about the lives of kings.

NCERT Solutions For Class 6 History Chapter 1  Introduction What Where How And When Very Short Answer Type Questions

Question 1. Where did the early people live?
Answer:

Early people lived along the banks of the river Narmada.

Question 2. Write the name of the region where rice was first of all grown in India.
Answer:

The region where rice was first of all grown in India is to the north of the Vindhyas.

Question 3. Name the countries that form South Asia.
Answer:

India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan, Sri Lanka, Afghanistan, Iran, China Myanmar, etc. form South Asia.

Question 4. Why is South Asia called a subcontinent?
Answer:

South Asia is called a subcontinent because, although it is smaller than a continent, it is very large and is separated from the rest of Asia by seas, hills, and mountains.

Question 5. Write important historical events against the following important dates:

  1. 8,000 years ago
  2. 4,700 years ago
  3. 2,500 years ago
  4. 2,000 AD ICE

Answer:

NCERT Solutions For Class 6 History Chapter 1 Introduction-What-Where-How-And-When-Match-The-Important-Dates-And-Important-Events

Question 6. Distinguish between historical and pre-historical periods.
Answer:

The period for which we have written records is called historical age or period, while the period for which we have no written records is called pre-historical age or period.

Question 7. Name two main groups (or categories) of historical sources.
Answer:

  1. Archaeological sources (for example: physical remains inscriptions, coins, etc.).
  2. Literary sources (such as religious books, manuscripts, foreign, travelers’ accounts, etc.).

Question 8. Where are Sulaiman, Kirthar, and Garo Hills located?
Answer:

Sulaiman and Kirthar Hills are located in modern-day Pakistan.

Garo Hills are located in Meghalaya in north-east India.

Question 9 Which animals were reared by the people of Sulaiman and Kirthar hills?
Answer:

Sheep and goat.

Question 10. What are tributaries? Give an example.
Answer:

Tributaries are small rivers that join a bigger river, for example, Son a tributary of the Ganga.

Question 11. What was the job of religious teachers?
Answer:

The religious teachers moved from place to place and offered advice and instructions to people.

NCERT Class 6 History Chapter 1 What, Where, How, and When Summary

Question 12. Write about the occupations of the people of Andaman Island.
Answer:

Fishing, hunting, and collecting forest produce are the main occupations of people of the Andaman Islands.

Question 13. What is the work of a historian?
Answer:

Historians find the information from manuscripts and inscriptions. They reconstruct the past from the sources that they find.

Question 14. Why do people travel nowadays?
Answer:

Nowadays people travel in search of livelihood, adventure, trade, or as a tourist.

NCERT Solutions For Class 6 History Chapter 1  Introduction What Where How And When Short Answer Type Questions

Question 1. What can we know about the past?
Answer:

We can know several things about the past like

  1. We can find out what people ate, the kinds of clothes they wore, the houses in which they lived.
  2. We can find out about hunters, herdsmen, farmers, rulers, merchants, priests, craftsmen, artists, artists, musicians, and scientists.
  3. We can also find out the games children played, the stories they heard, the dramas (or plays) they saw or enjoyed, and the songs they sang.

Question 2. Where did the people live in the Stone Age?
Answer:

The Way of Life of the People in the Stone Age

  • Some of the earliest people lived along the banks of rivers. They were skilled gatherers.
  • They knew about the vast wealth of plants in the surrounding forests and collected roots, fruits, and other forest products for their food.
  • The people in the Stone Age also hunted animals and birds. They used to catch fish also.
  • Some of the areas where the people first began to grow crops such as wheat and barley about 8000 years ago are located in river-valley areas.

They also began rearing animals like sheep, goats, dogs, cows, horses and other cattle.

Question 3. When did the early cities develop in India?
Answer:

  • About 4700 years ago some of the earliest cities flourished on the banks of the Indus and its tributaries.
  • And other early cities developed on the banks of the Ganga and its tributaries and along the sea coasts, about 2500 years ago.

Question 4. What do you know about Magadha?
Or
Name the first largest Indian empire. Write two to three sentences about it.

Answer:

  • Magadha was the first largest empire in India.
  • The area along some of the important rivers of Northern India and to the south of the Ganga was known as Magadha.
  • Magadha rulers were very powerful. (Chandragupta Maurya, Samrat Ashoka)
  • Magadha set up a large kingdom. (Some smaller kingdoms were set up in other parts of the country as well).

Question 5. Explain the following terms in short.

  1. BC
  2. AD
  3. CE
  4. BCE
  5. Script

Answer:

NCERT Solutions For Class 6 History Chapter 1

Question 6. What types of dangers were faced by the travelers?
Answer:

  • Travelers had to face the difficult physical features of deserts, rough seas, or mountains like the Himalayas.
  • Travelers had to face the consequences of natural disasters. Most of the time people travelled in groups or caravans.

NCERT Solutions for Class 6 History Chapter 1

Question 7. Who are archaeologists?
Answer:

  • Archaeologists study the remains of the past, like objects, remains of buildings, etc.
  • They explore and excavate tools, weapons pots, pans, coins, etc., and study paintings and sculptures.
  • They look for the bones of animals to find what people ate in the past.

Question 8. What were the advantages of writing on a hard surface? And what were the difficulties?
Answer:

  • Inscriptions were written on hard surfaces like metal or stone.
  • Inscriptions survived the test of time as they could not be eaten away by insects.
  • Inscriptions were not destroyed by severe climate or natural calamities.
  • Inscriptions would have been difficult to inscribe on hard surfaces as it required tools and skill.

NCERT Solutions For Class 6 History Chapter 1  Introduction What Where How And When Long Answer Type Questions

Question 1. How did our country get its name?
Answer:

Names Of Our Country

  1. Two of the words we generally use for our country are India and Bharat. The word India comes from the Indus called Sindhu in Sanskrit.
  2. The Iranians and the Greeks who came through the northwest about 2500 years ago, were familiar with the Indus, called the Hindos or the Indos. The land to the east of the river (i.e., the Indus) is called India.
  3. The name Bharat was used by a group of people who lived in the northwest, which is also mentioned in the Rigveda, the earliest composition in Sanskrit (dated to about 3500 years ago). Later, it was used for the country.

Question 2. Briefly describe the different ways of finding out about our pasts.
Answer:

There are different ways to know about our pasts:

NCERT Solutions For Class 6 History Chapter 1 Introduction-What-Where-How-And-When-Finding-Our-Parts

NCERT Solutions For Class 6 History Chapter 1  Introduction What Where How And When Map Skills

Question 1. Locate Sulaiman, Kirthar, Garo, and Vindhyas and Trace river, river Ganga, and their tributaries.
Answer:

  1. Sulaiman, Krithar: North-west
    • Garo: Northwest
    • Vindhyas: Central INDIA
  2. Tributaries Of Indus : Jhelum, Ravi, Sultej, Beas, Chenab.
    • Tributaries of Gang : Son, Chambal

NCERT Solutions For Class 6 History Chapter 1 Introduction-What-Where-How-And-When-Indian-Ocean

NCERT Solutions For Class 6 History Chapter 1  Introduction What Where How And When Multiple Choice Questions Choose The Correct Answer

Question 1. Which river’s bank did the people live along in the ancient time?

  1. Ganga
  2. Narmada
  3. Sutlej
  4. None of these

Answer: 2. Narmada

What, Where, How, and When Class 6 History Chapter 1 NCERT Solutions

Question 2. Which city was established on the banks of the Ganga?

  1. Magadha
  2. Vindhyas
  3. Both (1) and (2)
  4. None of these

Answer: 1. Magadha

Question 3. How did merchants travel?

  1. With Caravans
  2. By Ships
  3. Both (1) and (2)
  4. None of these

Answer: 3. Both (1) and (2)

Question 4. From where did the Iranians and the Greeks come?

  1. North-west
  2. North-east
  3. North-south
  4. None of these

Answer: 1. North-west

Question 5. Where were the manuscripts preserved?

  1. In temples and monasteries
  2. In museums
  3. Both (1) and (2)
  4. None of these

Answer: 1. In temples and monasteries

Question 6. How did the people of the Andaman Islands get their food?

  1. By fishing
  2. By hunting
  3. By collecting the forest products
  4. All of these

Answer: 4. All of these

Question 7. What helps us to find out the records of hunters, fishing folk, etc.?

  1. Archaeology
  2. Astrology
  3. Biology
  4. All of these

Answer: 1. Archaeology

NCERT Solutions Class 6 History What, Where, How, and When Chapter 1

Question 8. In what ways the ancient coin was different from the ones we use today?

  1. It was made of stones
  2. It was made from baked clay
  3. It was made of bones
  4. All of these

Answer: 4. All of these

Question 9. In which language most of the manuscripts were written?

  1. Sanskrit
  2. English
  3. Hindi
  4. None of these

Answer: 1. Sanskrit

NCERT Solutions For Class 6 History Chapter 9 New Empires And Kingdoms

by

NCERT Solutions For Class 6 History Chapter 9  New Empires And Kingdoms Exercises

Question 1. State whether true or false:

1. Harishenacomposed a prashasti, in praise of Gautamiputra Shri Satakarni.
Answer: False

2. The rulers of Aryavarta brought tribute to Samudragupta.
Answer: False

3. There were twelve rulers in Dakshinapatha.
Answer: True

NCERT Solutions Class 6 History Chapter 9 New Empires and Kingdoms

4. Taxila and Madurai were important centers under the control of the Gupta rulers.
Answer: False

Read and Learn More NCERT Solutions For Class 6 Social Science

5. Aihole was the capital of the Pallavas.
Answer: False

6. Local assemblies functioned for several centuries in South India.
Answer: True.

Question 2. Mention three authors who wrote about Harshavardhana.
Answer:

The Following Authors Wrote About Harshavardhana:

  1. Banabhatta
  2. Xuan Zang (Hien T-Sanga)
  3. Ravikirti

Question 3. What changes do you find in the army at this time?
Answer:

We find the following changes in the army at this time:

  1. A permanent army was kept by the king or the ruler. This was well organized.
  2. Soldiers used different kinds of weapons such as battle axes, arrows, spikes, spears, swords, etc.
  3. Elephants, chariots, and cavalry were used along with foot soldiers in the royal army.
  4. Besides, there were military leaders who provided the king the troops when the king needed them. Troops were not paid regular salaries. Instead, some of the military leaders received grants of land. They collected revenue from the land.
  5. They used this money to maintain soldiers and horses. They provided equipment for war. These men were known as samantas (WRt). Whenever the ruler was weak Samantas tried to become independent.

NCERT Solutions For Class 6 History Chapter 9 New Empires And Kingdoms

Question 4. What were the new administrative arrangements during this period?
Answer:

Following New Administrative Arrangements Were Noticed During This Period:

  1. Some important administrative posts were now hereditary. This means that sons succeeded fathers to these posts. For example, the poet Harishena was a maha-danda-nayaka, or chief judicial officer, like his father.
  2. Sometimes, one person held many offices. For example, besides being a maha-danda-nayaka Harishena was a kumar-amatya, meaning an important minister, and a sandhi-vigrahika meaning a minister of war and peace.
  3. Besides, important men probably had a say in local administration. These included:
    1. The nagara-shreshthi or chief banker or merchant of the city.
    2. The sarthavaha or leader of the merchant caravans, the prathama-Kulik or the chief craftsman,
    3. The head of the kayasthas or scribes.

Question 5. What do you think Arvind would have to do if he was acting as Samudragupta?
Answer:

Arvind Would Have To Do The Following Things If He Was Acting As Samudragupta:

  1. Arvind had to march solemnly in splendid robes, twirl his mustaches, and wield the silver-paper-wrapped sword with gusto.
  2. Arvind had to sit on the throne play a veena, and recite poetry.
  3. Arvind had to fight several battles.

Question 6. Do you think ordinary people would have read and understood the prashastis? Give reasons for your answer.
Answer:

I think ordinary people would have not read and understood the prashastis because they were illiterate and did not know the Sanskrit in which the prashastis were written. But they were told about prashastis by some literate persons or Brahmins.

Question 7. If you had to make a genealogy for yourself, who are the people you would include in it? How many generations would you like to show? Make a chart and fill it.
Answer:

If I Had To Make A Genealogy For Myself I Would Like To Include The Following Persons In It:

  1. Name of my great grandfather.
  2. Name of my grandfather.
  3. Name of my father and mother.
  4. The name/names of my sons/daughters.
  5. The name/names of my grandchildren.

I Would Like To Show The Following Five Generations:

  1. Great Grandfather
  2. Grandfather
  3. Parents
  4. My own name
  5. Names of my children
  6. Names of my grandchildren.

New Empires and Kingdoms Class 6 History NCERT Solutions

Question 8. How do you think wars affect the lives of ordinary people today?
Answer:

Today’s Wars Affect The Lives Of Ordinary People In The Following Ways:

  1. They are killed in large numbers.
  2. Their property—houses, shops, etc. are destroyed.
  3. Wars create violence and disturbances in society.
  4. Development projects and welfare works undertaken by the government for the welfare and benefit of the people are disturbed and postponed.
  5. Wars waste economic and other resources. Governments generally impose more taxes on the people.

Question 9. What was the difference between the way in which Samudragupta treated the rulers of Aryavarta and Dakshinapatha?
Answer:

Samudragupta’s policies towards Aryavarta were very strict. All the nine rulers were defeated and their kingdoms were merged in his empire. He treated the rulers of Dakshinapath in a different manner. The twelve rulers surrendered and were allowed to rule again.

Question 10. Arrange these titles in order of importance: Raja, maharaj-adhiraja, maharaja.
Answer:

  1. Maharaj-adhiraja,
  2. Maharaja,
  3. Raja.

Question 11. Look at the political map of India and list the present-day states that Harshavardhana passed through when he went

  1. To Bengal and
  2. Up to the Narmada.

Answer:

  1. Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand
  2. Delhi, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh

Question 12. Who were the other rulers who tried to control the coasts and why?
Answer:

Cholas, Pandyas, Satavahans, and Kushanas tried to control the coasts. This was basically to control the trade route and take taxes.

Question 13. What do you think may have been the advantages and disadvantages of having hereditary officers?
Answer:

  • There were certain advantages of having hereditary officers. The officers would be loyal and trustworthy. They would maintain their territories as they would be going to their sons only.
  • On the other hand, this could mean the officers becoming more powerful in a territory and trying to set up independent kingdoms.

NCERT Solutions For Class 6 History Chapter 9  New Empires And Kingdoms Very Short Answer Type Questions

Question 1. Mention the names of two main historical sources of Harsha.
Answer:

  1. Harshacharita, the biography of Harshavardhana, written by his court poet, Banabhatta.
  2. Travel description of the Chinese pilgrim, Xuan Zang.

Question 2. What were prashasties?
Answer:

Prashasties were poems composed in praise of rulers by their court poets.

Question 3. Name four types of rulers described by Harishena.
Answer:

Four types of Rulers Were:

NCERT Solutions For Class 6 History Chapter 9 New-Empires-And-Kingdoms-Four-Rulers-Of-Harishena

Question 4. Who wrote Harsha’s biography?
Answer:

Banabhatta wrote Harshacharita in Sanskrit.

NCERT Solutions For Class 6 History Chapter 9  New Empires And KingdomsShort Answer Type Questions

Question 1. Who was Samudragupta? What is the main source of history about him?
Answer:

Samudragupta was a famous ruler of a dynasty known as the Guptas.

We know about Samudragupta from a poem composed by Harishena. This was inscribed on the Ashokan pillar at Allahabad. This inscription is of the special kind known as prashasti, a word, meaning ‘ in praise of’.

The poet praised the king in glowing terms

  • As a warrior,
  • As a king who won victories in battle,
  • Who was learned and a poet.

He is also described as equal to the gods.

Chapter 9 New Empires and Kingdoms NCERT Solutions

Question 2. Discuss about genealogies of the Gupta. Write some sentences of Chandragupta II of the Gupta dynasty.
Answer:

Genealogies of the Gupta Rules

  1. Allahabad—prashasti mentions Samudragupta’s great grandfather, grandfather, father, and mother.
    • His mother, Kumara Devi, belonged to the Lichchhavi Gana, while his father
    • Chandragupta was the first ruler of the Gupta dynasty to adopt the grand title of maharaj-adhiraja, a title that Samudragupta also used.
  2. Samudragupta in turn figures in the genealogies of later rulers of the dynasty, such as his son, Chandragupta II. We know about him from inscriptions and coins. He led an expedition to western India, where he overcame the last of the Shakas.
  3. According to later beliefs, his court was full of learned people, including Kalidas, the poet, and Aryabhata, the astronomer.

Question 3. Describe in short about Harshavardhana and the Harshacharita.
Answer:

Harshavardhana and the Harshacharita

  1. Harshavardhana ruled nearly 1400 years ago. His court poet Banabhatta, wrote his biography, The Harshacharita in Sanskrit. This gives us the genealogy of Harsha and ends with his becoming King.
  2. Xuan Zang (the Chinese Buddhist Pilgrim) spent a lot of time at Harsha’s court. He wrote in detail about Harsha.
  3. Harsha was not the eldest son of his father. He became king of Thanesar after both his father and elder brother died.

His brother-in-law was the ruler of Kanauj. When he was killed by the ruler of Bengal, Harsha took over the kingdom of Kanauj.

He then led an army against the ruler of Bengal. He was successful in the east and conquered both Magadha and Bengal.

But he was not as successful elsewhere. He tried to cross the Narmada (river) to march into the Deccan but was stopped by Pulakeshin 2.

Question 4. Write a short note on the assemblies in the Southern Kingdoms.
Answer:

The Sabha: The inscriptions (prashasties) of the Pallavas mention a number of local assemblies.

  1. These included the sabha. This was an assembly of Brahmin landowners. This assembly functioned through sub-committees, for irrigation, agricultural operations, making roads, local temples, etc.
  2. The Ur: Second important assembly in the southern kingdom was the Ur, This was a village assembly in areas where the land owners were not Brahmins.
  3. The nagaram: The third main assembly in the Southern Kingdoms was the nagaram. It was an organization of merchants. These assemblies were controlled by rich and powerful landowners and merchants.

All above mentioned local assemblies continued to function in the southern kingdoms for centuries.

NCERT Solutions For Class 6 History Chapter 9  New Empires And Kingdoms Long Answer Type Questions

Question 1. Give an account of Samudragupta as a warrior.
Answer:

Samudragupta As A Warrior:

  1. Samudragupta was a brave ruler of the Gupta dynasty.
  2. He uprooted nine rulers of Aryavarta. Their Kingdoms were made a part of his empire.
  3. Twelve rulers of Dakshinapatha surrendered to him after being defeated. He then allowed them to rule again.
  4. The rulers of Assam, Bengal, Nepal, etc. paid tributes. They followed the orders of Samudragupta. They attended his court from time to time.
  5. The rulers of the outlying areas of the subcontinent, (Perhaps present-day, Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Iran) surrendered before him. They offered their daughters for marriage.

Question 2. Discuss two important ruling dynasties in south India of Harsha’s period of north India.
Or
Describe some of the main achievements of the Pallavas and the Chalukyas.
Answer:

The Pallavas And The Chalukyas

  1. The Pallavas and Chalukyas were the most important ruling dynasties in south India during this period (i.e. Harsha’s reign in north India). The Kingdom of the Pallavas spread from the region around their capital, Kanchipuram to the Kaveri delta, while that of the Chalukyas was centered around the Raichur Doab, between the rivers Krishna and Timgabhadra.
  2. The Pallavas and Chalukyas frequently attacked one another’s areas, particularly they attacked the capital cities, which were prosperous towns.
  3. Aihole, the capital of the Chalukyas, was an important trading and commercial center. Initially, this town developed as a religious center, with a number of temples.
  4. During the days of Pulakeshin 2, the Chalukyas defeated Harsha of Kanauj and Thaneswar. But this victory was short-lived.
  5. Ultimately, both the Pallavas and the Chalukyas gave way to new rulers belonging to Rashtrakuta and Chola dynasties.

Question 3. Who was Pulakeshin II? Mention his main achievements, as described in his prasliasti.
Answer:

Pulakeshin 2 And His Prashasti:

  1. The best-known Chalukya ruler was Pulakeshin 2. We know about him from a prashasti. This prases (inscription) was composed by Pulakeshin’s (2) court poet Ravikirti. This tells us about his ancestors, who are traced back through four generations from father to son.
  2. Pulakeshin 2 evidently got the Kingdom from his uncle. According to Ravikirti, he led expeditions along both the west and the east coast.
  3. Pulakeshin 2 checked the advance of Harsha from crossing Narmada.
  4. Pulakeshin 2 also attacked the Pallava king, who took shelter behind the walls of Kanchipuram. However, the successors of Pulakeshin 2 were not very capable, and therefore the Chalukya’s victory against their political rivals was short-lived. The Chalukyas gave way to a new ruling dynasty, the Rashtrakuta.

Question 4. How were the kingdoms of northern India administered during the ages of the Guptas and the Harshavardhana?
Answer:

Administration

  1. The two main old administrative features are given as follows:
    • As in the case of earlier rulers, land revenue remained important for these rulers (of the Gupta and Vardhan dynasties), and
    • The village remained the basic unit of administration.
  2. New Developments in Administration: There were some new developments in administration. These were:
    • Support of feudal or lords. Kings adopted a number of steps to win the support of the powerful, either economically or socially or because of their political and military strength.
    • Some important administrative posts were made hereditary. The poet Harishena (writer of Allahabad-prashasti) was made a chief judicial officer, like his father.
    • Sometimes, one person held many offices. For example, besides being a maha-danda-nayaka, Harishena was a Kumar-amatya, meaning an important minister, and a Sandhi-vigrahika, meaning a minister of war and peace.
    • Besides, important men probably had a say in local administration. These included the Nagara-shreshthi or chief banker or merchant of the city, the Sarthavaha, or leader of the merchant caravans, the Prathama-Kulika, or the chief craftsman, and the head of the Kayasthas or scribes.
  3. Rise of independent kingdoms: The above-mentioned changes introduced in the administrative setup were reasonably effective but sooner or later, some of these powerful men grew strong enough to set up independent Kingdoms.

Question 5. Describe the changes that came in the army.
Answer:

  1. Some of these rulers maintained a well-organized army, with chariots, elephants, cavalry, and foot soldiers. Besides, there were military leaders who provided the rulers with troops whenever they required them.
  2. Feudal lords were not paid regular salaries. Instead, some of them received grants of land. They collected revenue from the land and used this to maintain soldiers and horses.
  3. They also provided equipment for warfare to the kings. These men were known as Samantas.
  4. Whenever the ruler was weak, Samantas tried to become independent.

NCERT Solutions for Class 6 History Chapter 9

Question 6. Discuss the position of the ordinary people in India in this period, being studied in this chapter (i.e., chapter 8).
Answer:

Position Of The Ordinary People Of India

  • Books of that period give us a glimpse of the lives of ordinary people of India.
  • For example, Kalidas (a great Sanskrit poet) tells us about life in the King’s court. Most Brahmins are shown as speaking Sanskrit. Women and men, other than the ruler and Brahmins, use Prakrit.
  • As per the Chinese Buddhist pilgrim, Fa Xian, some people were treated as untouchables. They were supposed to live on the outskirts of the village/city.

NCERT Solutions For Class 6 History Chapter 9  New Empires And Kingdoms Multiple Choice Questions

Choose The Correct Answer:

Question 1. Who was the famous ruler of a dynasty known as Guptas?

  1. Chandragupta
  2. Samudragupta
  3. Ashoka
  4. Siddhartha

Answer: 2. Samudragupta

Question 2. To which language does the term ‘prashasti’ belong?

  1. English
  2. Hindi
  3. Sanskrit
  4. Tamil

Answer: 3. Sanskrit

Question 3. What was the meaning of kumar-amatya?

  1. Minister
  2. Chief banker
  3. Scribe
  4. Judicial officer

Answer: 1. Minister

Question 4. Who wrote the biography of Harshavardhana?

  1. Surender Sharma
  2. Amir Khusro
  3. Banabhatta
  4. None of these

Answer: 3. Banabhatta

Question 5. Who tried to cross Narmada to march into Deccan?

  1. Harshavardhana
  2. Banabhatta
  3. Siddhartha
  4. Ashoka

Answer: 1. Harshavardhana

New Empires and Kingdoms: NCERT Solutions Chapter 9

Question 6. Who was the best ruler of Chalukyas?

  1. Pulakeshin 1
  2. Pulakeshin 2
  3. Pulakeshin 3
  4. None of these

Answer: 2. Pulakeshin 2

Question 7. What was the Indian name given to Greeks and

  1. Yadavs
  2. Yavanas
  3. Javas
  4. All of these

Answer: 2. Yavanas

Question 8. Who tried to become independent when rulers became weak?

  1. So mantas
  2. Harshavardhana
  3. Ashoka
  4. Chandragupta

Answer: 1. So mantas

Question 9. Who was famous for his plays depicting life in the king’s court?

  1. Banabhatta
  2. Ravikirti
  3. Kalidasa
  4. None of these

Answer: 3. Kalidasa

Question 10. “Abhijnana – Shakuntalam” is the story of love between which king and a young woman named Shakuntala.

  1. Dushyanta
  2. Harshavardhana
  3. Ashoka
  4. Chandragupta

Answer: 1. Dushyanta

NCERT Solutions For Class 6 History Chapter 9  New Empires And Kingdoms Objective Type Questions

Question 1. Fill in the blanks with appropriate words.

1. Prayag prashasti was composed by _______, a court poet of _______
Answer: Harishena, Samudragupta

2. _______ was the court poet of Pulakeshin II.
Answer: Ravikirti

History Chapter 9 NCERT Solutions New Empires and Kingdoms

3. Mother of Samudragupta, Kumara Devi belonged to _________ gana.
Answer: Lichchhavi

4. Pallavas and Chalukyas were replaced by ________ and _________
Answer: Rashtrakutas, Cholas

5. Raichur Doab was between rivers ______ and _______
Answer: Krishna, Tungabhadra.

Question 2. State whether the given statement is true or false.

1. Harshvardhan’s success was checked by Harishena.
Answer: False

2. Aryabhata was an astronomer.
Answer: True

3. Xuan-Zang spent time in Harsha’s court and left an account of it.
Answer: True

4. Powerful samantas tried to become independent.
Answer: True

5. Conditions for untouchables were very good.
Answer: False.

Question 3. Match the contents of Column A with that of Column B.

NCERT Solutions For Class 6 History Chapter 9 New-Empires-And-Kingdoms-Match-The-Contents

Answer: 1-c, 2-e, 3-f, 4-a, 5-d, 6-b

Chapter 9 New Empires and Kingdoms Class 6 NCERT Solutions

NCERT Solutions For Class 6 History Chapter 9  New Empires And Kingdoms Map Skills

On the outline map of India locate the following:

NCERT Solutions For Class 6 History Chapter 9 New-Empires-And-Kingdoms-Important-Cities-And-Kingdoms

  • Prayaga (Allahabad)
  • Mathura
  • Pataliputra (Patna)
  • Thanesar
  • Kanauj
  • Nalanda
  • Aihole
  • Kanchipuram.

Diseases Of The Gastrointestinal System Notes

by

Diseases Of The Gastrointestinal System Important Notes

  1. Barium Swallow
    • Uses
      • To study the gastrointestinal tract
      • Visualize break in the gut mucosa
      • Detects mucosal abnormalities
      • Detects motility disorders
      • Shows filling defect caused by varices or tumor
      • Detects hiatus hernia or diverticulum
  2. Stool ExaminationDiseases Of The Gastrointestinal System Stool Examination
  3. Dental Caries
    • It is progressive destruction of mineral and organic constituents of both enamel and dentin
    • Fluoride is used to protect it
    • Etiological agent
      • Bad oral hygiene
      • Staph. Aureus responsible for initiation of caries activity
      • Lactobacillus leads to acid formation
    • Progression of disease
      • Dental caries → acute pulpitis → periapical granuloma → periapical cyst
  4. Ludwig’s Angina
    • It is a subcutaneous infection involving all three salivary glands – parotid, submandibular and sub lingual
    • Clinical features
    • Swelling on floor of mouth
    • Elevation of tongue
    • Difficulty in breathing or chewing
  5. Periodontal Disease
    • Progression of disease
      • Gingivitis → involvement of alveolar bone and periodontal ligament → bone resorption → loss of attachment of periodontal ligament → pocket formation
    • Result
      • Mobile teeth
      • Recurrent abscess formation
      • Poor prognosis
  6. Acute Necrotizing Ulcerative Gingivitis (ANUG)
    • Etiology
      • Fusiform spirochaetes
    • Clinical features
      • Gingival bleeding
      • Gingival necrosis
      • Ulceration
      • Halitosis
      • Regional lymphadenopathy
  7. Changes In Gingiva In Different DiseasesDiseases Of The Gastrointestinal System Changes In Gingiva In Different Diseases
  8. Causes Of Stomatitis
    • Infective
      • Bad oral hygiene
      • Low immunity
    • Nutritional
      • Iron deficiency
      • Vitamin B complex deficiency
  9. Drugs Used In Different Diseases Of Oral CavityDiseases Of The Gastrointestinal System Drugs Used In Different Diseases Of Oral Cavity
  10. Dysphagia
    • It is defined as a sensation of obstruction of the passage of food through the mouth, pharynx, or esophagus
    • Causes
      • Extrinsic pressure – mediastinal glands, goiter, enlarged left atrium
      • Intrinsic lesion – foreign bodies, stricture, lower oesophageal rings, pharyngeal pouch
      • Oesophageal motility disorders – scleroderma, diabetes mellitus
  11. Plummer Vinson Syndrome
    • It is characterized by dysphagia, iron deficiency anemia, dystrophy of nails and glossitis
  12. Upper Gastrointestinal Bleeding
    • Characterised by haematemesis and melaena
    • Causes
      • Peptic ulcer
      • Gastric erosion
      • Varices
      • Oesophagitis
      • Cancer of stomach or esophagus
  13. Mallory Weiss Tear
    • It is one of the cause of acute upper gastrointestinal bleeding
    • It occurs at the oesophagogastric junction
  14. GERD
    • Burning pain is produced by bending, stooping, or lying down
    • Pain seldom radiates to arm
    • Pain precipitates by drinking hot liquids or alcohols
    • Relieved by antacids
  15. Dyspepsia Or Peptic Ulcer
    • It Means An Ulcer In The Wall Of Stomach Or Duodenum Caused By The Digestive Action Of Gastric Juice
    • Types
      • Gastric ulcer
    • It is peptic ulcer occurring in stomach
    • In it pain occurs while eating or drinking and is relieved by vomiting
    • It is associated with anorexia and weight loss
      • Duodenal ulcer
    • It is peptic ulcer found in the duodenum
    • In it pain is felt 1-2 hours after food intake and during night
    • Pain is relieved by taking food
  16. Gastritis
    • It is acute or chronic inflammation of stomach
    • Types:Diseases Of The Gastrointestinal System Gastritis Types
  17. Diarrhea
    • It refers to frequent loose stools
    • Bacteria causing it are
      • Staph. Aureus
      • Bacillus cereus
      • CI. perfringens
      • Cl. Botulinum
      • Salmonella
      • Vibrio cholera
    • Treatment
      • Fluid replacement
      • Antibiotics
        • Oxytetracycline, ciprofloxacin, metronidazole
  18. Traveller’s Diarrhea
    • Acute diarrhea seen in tourists
    • May resolve spontaneously
    • Drug used is loperamide in adults

Diseases Of The Gastrointestinal System Notes Periodontal disease

gastrointestinal pathology notes

Read And Learn More: General Medicine Question and Answers

  1. Malabsorption Syndrome
    • Refers to defective absorption of one or more essential nutrients through the intestine
    • Etiology
      • Disorders of maldigestion
      • Deficiency of bile acids
      • Genetic abnormality
      • Metabolic defects
    • Treatment
      • Gluten-free diet
      • Vitamin and mineral supplements
      • Corticosteroids
  2. Lactose Intolerance
    • Occurs due to a deficiency of lactose
    • Clinical features
      • Intestinal colic
      • Distension of abdomen
      • Increased flatus
        • After ingestion of milk
      • Followed by diarrhoea
    • Treatment
      • Intake of lactose-restricted diet
  3. Amoebiasis
    • Caused by entamoeba histolytica
    • Clinical features
      • Fever, nausea, vomiting
      • 2-4 loose stools per day mixed with blood and mucous
      • Pam in abdomen
      • Necrotizing colitis with mucosal sloughing, ulceration, and bleeding
    • Drugs used
      • Oral metronidazole 800 mg TID for 5 days or
      • Oral tinidazole 2 g daily for 3 days or
      • Oral secnidazole 2 g single dose
  4. Hematemesis And HemoptysisDiseases Of The Gastrointestinal System Hemetemesis And Hemoptysis

gastrointestinal system diseases notes

Aims Of Medicine And Clinical Methods

by

Aims Of Medicine Important Notes:

  1. Auscultatory AreasAims Of Medicine And Clinical Methods Auscultatory Areas
  2. Clubbing
    • Clubbing Definition
      • Bulbous enlargement of soft parts of terminal phalanges with both transverse and longitudinal curving of nails
    • Clubbing Causes
      • Pulmonary – bronchogenic carcinoma, lung abscess, bronchiectasis
      • Cardiac – infective endocarditis, cyanotic congenital heart disease
      • Alimentary – ulcerative colitis, Crohn’s disease, biliary cirrhosis
      • Endocrine – myxedema, Grave’s disease, acromegaly
      • Miscellaneous – hereditary, heroin addicts

aims of medicine short note

Read And Learn More: General Medicine Question and Answers

    • Clubbing Grading

      Aims Of Medicine And Clinical Methods Clubbing Grading
  2. Pseudoclubbing
    • In hyperparathyroidism, excessive bone resorption may result in the disappearance of the terminal phalanges with telescoping of soft tissues and a drumstick appearance of the fingers resembling clubbing
    • However, the curvature of the nail is not present
  3. Scliamrotli’s Sign
    • Normally when two fingers are held together with nails facing each other, a space is seen at the level of the proximal nail fold
    • This is lost in clubbing
  4. Jugular venous pressureAims Of Medicine And Clinical Methods Jugular Venous Pressure
  5. Different Sounds And Their SignificanceAims Of Medicine And Clinical Methods Different Sounds And Their Significance
  6. Important TermsAims Of Medicine And Clinical Methods Important Terms

Jugular Venous Pulse

Jugular Venous Pulse is an important sign of cardiovascular disease

Jugular Venous Pulse Procedure:

  1. Patient is placed in a reclining position at 45° angle with neck muscles relaxed.
  2. Upper level of pulsation of an internal jugular vein is seen.

Jugular Venous Pulse Significance:

  1. Fall in pressure during inspiration.
  2. Rise in pressure in constrictive pericarditis & cardiac tamponade.

Jugular Venous Pulse Waves:

  1. Positive waves
    • a wave
      • Cause – Atrial contraction.
      • Absent in atrial fibrillation.
      • Prominent in tricuspid stenosis.
    • c wave
      • Small positive wave.
    • v wave
      • Cause: Passive filling of blood from veins into the right atrium.
  2. Negative waves
    • x wave
      • Cause: Descent of tricuspid valve.
    • y wave
      • Cause: Rapid flow of blood from right atrium to right ventricle when the tricuspid valve is open.
      • Prominent y wave – seen in tricuspid regurgitation.

Aims Of Medicine And Clinical Methods Notes Jugular venous pulse Waves

aims and objectives of medicine

 Clubbing

 

Clubbing Definition:

Clubbing is an enlargement of the distal segment of fingers and toes due to an increase in soft tissues.

Clubbing Causes:

  1. Disorders Of The heart.
    • Cyanotic heart disease.
    • Subacute bacterial endocarditis
  2. Disorders Of Lungs.
    • Suppuration of lung
    • Tumours of lung
  3. Disorders of GI tract St liver
    • Inflammatory bowel disease.
    • Cirrhosis of liver.
    • Malignancy of liver
  4. Hereditary or idiopathic.

clinical methods in medicine notes

VIVA Voce

  • The commonest cause of raised JVP is cardiac failure
  • White-colored sputum is called mucoid
  • Yellowish greenish lotid sputum is called purulent sputum
  • Grade 3 clubbing gives nails shape of parrut’s beak.

 

Diseases Of Cardiovascular System Short Essays

by

Diseases Of Cardiovascular System Important Notes

  1. Cyanosis
    • It is a bluish discoloration of skin and mucous membrane
    • Types: central and peripheral
    • Causes:
      • Pulmonary – high altitude, pneumonia, pneumothorax, COPD, severe acute asthma
      • Cardiovascular causes – acute pulmonary edema, cyanotic heart disease
      • Blood disorders-methemoglobin
  2. CPR (Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation)
    • Rescues breathing in adult 12 times/min
    • Compression to ventilation ratio in two people is 5:1
    • Compression to ventilation ratio in one person is 15:2
    • Compression should be 60-80 minute in adults and 100/minute in children
    • Depth of compression should be 1 1/2 -2 inches at the lower half of the sternum at an average of each second
  3. Starling’s Law
    • It states that an increase in the force of contraction is directly related to cardiac output
    • It states that the force of ventricular contraction is directly related to the end-diastolic volume
  4. Co Pulmonale
    • It is an enlargement of the right ventricle of the heart as a response to increased resistance or high blood pressure in the lungs
    • It is a condition where there is right ventricular hypertrophy with or without failure resulting from diseases affecting the structure or function of the lungs.
  5. Rheumatic Fever
    • It is an acute inflammatory disease that occurs as a sequel of infection caused by group A streptococci
    • Jone’s criteria is used for its features
    • Diagnostic features
      • Leucocytosis
      • Raised ESR
      • Raised CRP
      • Raised ASO titre
      • Cardiomegaly
  6. Jone’s Criteria
    • Used for diagnosis of rheumatic fever
    • Major manifestations:
      • Carditis
      • Polyarthritis
      • Chorea
      • Erythema marginatum
      • Subcutaneous nodules over bones or tendons
    • Minor manifestations:
      • Fever
      • Arthralgia
      • Previous history of rheumatic fever
      • Raised ESR
      • Leucocytosis
      • First or second-degree AV block
  7. Mitral Stenosis
    • Symptoms:
      • Breathlessness
      • Oedema, ascites
      • Palpitation
      • Hemoptysis
      • Cough
    • Signs:
      • Atrial fibrillation
      • Mitral facies
      • Auscultation
        • Loud first heart sound
        • Opening snap
        • Mid diastolic murmur
      • Pulmonary hypertension
      • Pulmonary edema
  8. Endocarditis Prophylaxis
    • AJ STANDARD PROPHYLAXIS:
      • Amoxycillin
      • Dose= Adult-2 gm
      • Child- 50 mg 1 hour before surgery
    • BJ Patient Unable To Take Orally:
      • Ampicillin
      • Dose: Adult – 2 gm IM/IV
      • Child- 50 mg 1 hour before surgery
    • CJ Patient Allergic To Penicillin
      • Clindamycin
      • dose: Adult – 600 mg
      • Child- 300 mg 1 hour before surgery
  9. Infective Endocarditis
    • EtiologyDiseases Of Cardiovascular System Infective Endocarditis Etiology
    • Clinical Features
      • Roth spots
      • Cerebral emboli
      • Petechial hemorrhages of skin and mucous membrane
      • Splinter hemorrhages and clubbing of nails
      • Osier’s nodes
      • Splenomegaly
      • Haematuria
      • Murmurs
      • Arrhythmias
      • Cardiac failure
  10. Myocardial Infarction
    • Lab InvestigationsDiseases Of Cardiovascular System Myocardial Infraction Lab Investigation
  11. Heart SoundsDiseases Of Cardiovascular System Heart Sounds Types
  12. Risk Factors Of Atherosclerosis
    • Cigarette smoking
    • Hypertension
    • Low HDL cholesterol
    • Diabetes mellitus
    • Family history of CHD
    • Old age
    • Life style
      • Obesity
      • Physical inactivity
      • Atherogenic diet
  13. ECG WavesDiseases Of Cardiovascular System ECG Waves

Cardiovascular diseases short essay

Diseases Of Cardiovascular System Short Essays

Question 1. Risk factors of IHD

Answer:

Risk factors Of IHD

  1. Age: Occurs in middle and old age
    • Sex: More common in males than in females
    • Family history – Hyperlipidaemia and hyperfibrinogenemia are genetically determined
  2. Smoking – Related to IHD
  3. Hypertension
    • Systolic and diastolic blood pressure increases the risk of IHD
  4. Hypercholesterolaemia
    • HDL cholesterol is a protective
    • LDL cholesterol increases the risk of IHD
  5. Hyperfibrinogenaemia
    • Increases risk of IHD
  6. Hyperhomocysteinaemia
    • Elevated levels of homocysteine in blood may promote thrombosis
  7. Sedentary habits
    • Regular exercise for 20 min 2-3 times a week increases HDL cholesterol, lowers BP, reduces blood clotting, and promotes collateral formation
  8. Diabetes mellitus
    • Diabetes is associated with coronary atherosclerosis, obesity, and physical inactivity which further increases the risk of coronary heart disease
  9. Obesity
    • It is associated with hypertension, diabetes, physical inactivity
  10. Alcohol
    • A moderate quantity of alcohol has a protective effect, while heavy drinking is considered a risk factor
  11. Mental stress
    • It aggravates symptoms of pre-existing heart disease
  12. Diet
    • A deficiency of polyunsaturated fatty acids increases the risk of IHD
    • Low levels of vitamins A, C, and E increase the production of oxidized LDL

Read And Learn More: General Medicine Question and Answers

Question 2. Clinical features of acute rheumatic fever Jone’s criteria

Answer: Used for diagnosis of rheumatic fever

Major Manifestations:

  • Carditis
  • Polyarthritis Chorea
  • Erythema marginatum
  • Subcutaneous nodules over bones or tendons

Minor Manifestations:

  • Fever
  • Arthralgia
  • Previous history of rheumatic fever
  • Raised ESR
  • Leucocytosis
  • First or second-degree AV block

Short notes on heart diseases

Question 3. Cyanosis.

Answer:

Cyanosis

Bluish discoloration of skin and mucous membranes is called cyanosis.

Sites Involved:

  • Lips n Nail beds a Finger’s tip Ear lobule.
  • The undersurface of the tongue,
  • Malar eminences
  • Creases of plans.

Cyanosis Types Of Causes:

  1. Central cyanosis.
    • Pulmonary causes.
      • High altitude
      • Pneumonia.
      • Pneumothorax
      • COPD
      • Severe acute asthma
      • Respiratory failure.
    • Cardiovascular causes.
      • Acute pulmonary edema
      • Cyanotic heart diseases
      • Corpulmonale,
    • Blood disorders,
      • Methemoglobin.
  2. Peripheral cyanosis,
    • Decreased cardiac output
    • Congestive cardiac failure
    • Cold exposure
    • Arterial obstruction
    • Venous obstruction.

Cyanosis Features:

  1. Peripheral cyanosis.
    • Occurs due to extraction of 02 from blood.
    • Occurs in healthy persons due to cold exposure.
    • Seen on lips, nails, tip of nose, ear lobule
  2. Central cyanosis.
    • Occurs due to poor oxygenation of blood in the lungs.
    • Seen on the undersurface of the tongue, mucous membrane of the oral cavity, and palate.
  3. Mixed cyanosis.
    • It is a combination of peripheral and central cyanosis.

Question 4. Right Ventricular Failure.

Answer:

Right Ventricular Failure

Right Ventricular Failure is defined as heart failure due to right ventricular outflow or inflow tract obstruction leading to passive congestion of the viscera.

Right Ventricular Failure Causes:

  • Acute corpulmonale.
  • Chronic corpulmonale.
  • Pulmonary valve disease.
  • Tricuspid valve disease
  • Mitral valve disease
  • Isolated right ventricular cardiomyopathy.

Right Ventricular Failure Clinical Features:

  • Fatigue.
  • Dyspnoea.
  • Hypochondria pain.
  • Protuberant abdomen.
  • Swelling of leg.
  • Distended neck veins.
  • fender, soft, smooth hepatomegaly,
  • Pitting edema.
  • Ascites
  • Pleural edema.
  • Ascites
  • Pleural effusion.

Right Ventricular Failure Treatment:

  • Salt restriction
  • Diuretics
  • ACE inhibitors.

Common cardiovascular disorders short answer

Question 5.Congenital Cardiac Disease.

Answer:

Congenital Cardiac Disease

Congenital heart disease may present in early childhood or remain asymptomatic till adult life.

Congenital Cardiac Disease Classification:

  1. Acyanotic.
    • Acyanotic with left to right shunt.
      • Atrial septal defect
      • Ventricular septal defect.
      • Patent ductus arteriosus.
    • Acyanotic without shunt.
      • Pulmonary stenosis.
      • Aortic stenosis.
      • Coarctation of aorta.
  2. Cyanotic.
    • Complete transposition of great vessels.
    • Persistent trances arteriosus.
    • Tetralogy of Fallot.
    • Common atrium.

Etiology:

  • Infections – rubella infection.
  • Chromosomal defects – Down’s syndrome, Turner’s syndrome.
  • Connective tissue disorders
  • Alcohol abuse.
  • Teratogenic drugs.

Congenital Cardiac Disease Clinical Features:

  • Breathlessness.
  • Central cyanosis.
  • Clubbing.
  • Growth retardation.
  • Syncope.
  • Short stature.

Question 6. Tetralogy of Fallot.

Answer:

Tetralogy Of Fallot Components:

  • Pulmonary stenosis.
  • Ventricular septal defect.
  • Over-riding of the aorta at the level of ventricular septal defect.
  • Right ventricular hypertrophy.

Pathogenesis:

Diseases Of Cardiovascular System Pathogenesis..

Tetralogy Of Fallot Clinical Features:

  • Cyanosis – develops after 1 year of age.
  • Grade 4 dubbing of fingers and toes
  • Stunted growth.

Tetralogy Of Fallot Diagnosis:

  • ECG – shows right ventricular hypertrophy.
  • The second heart -sound – shows delayed splitting.
  • Echocardiography – demonstrates aorta.
  • X-ray chest – Boot-shaped heart.

Diseases Of Cardiovascular System Tetralogy Of Fallot

Coronary artery disease short essay

Question 7. Angina pectoris — clinical features.

Answer:

Angina Pectoris Clinical Features:

  • Common in 40 – 60-year-old males, n Retrosternal pain.
  • Pain radiates to the left arm or the right arm, throat, back, chin, and epigastrium.
  • It gets precipitated by exertion and relieved by rest.
  • The patient feels heaviness, pressure, squeezing, or choking sensation.
  • Nocturnal angina.

Question 8. Hypertensive encephalopathy.

Answer:

Hypertensive Encephalopathy

Hypertensive Encephalopathy is a neurological symptom occurring due to high blood pressure.

Hypertensive Encephalopathy Clinical Features:

  • Transient abnormalities in speech or vision.
  • Paraesthesia.
  • Disorientation
  • Fits.
  • Loss of consciousness.
  • Papilloedema.

Hypertensive Encephalopathy Treatment:

  • Bed rest
  • Sedation
  • Intravenous sodium nitroprusside – 0.3 – 1 mcg/kg/min.
  • Diuretics.
  • Parenteral use of labetalol, hydralazine, or nitroglycerine.

Question 9. Complications and management of hypotension.

Answer:

Hypotension Complications:

  • Headache
  • Dizziness
  • Fainting,
  • Risk of accidents.
  • Deprive of oxygen to vital organs, n Damage to the brain and heart.

Hypotension Treatment:

  • Fluid administration – to treat dehydration,
  • Use of compression stockings.
  • Change body positions slowly,
  • Increase salt intake.
  • Fludrocortisone is used.

Question 10. Beta-blockers.

Answer:

Beta-Blockers

Bela blockers are drugs that block the actions of catecholamines mediated through beta receptors.

Beta-Blockers Classification:

  1. Non-selective.
    • Propranolol, timolol, satalol.
  2. Cardio-selective.
    • Metoprolol, atenolol, esmolol, betaxolol.
  3. Partial agonists.
    • Pindolol, oxprenolol, carteolol.
  4. With additional alpha-blocking properties.
    • Labetalol, carvedilol.
  5. β1 blockers β2 agonist.
    • Celiprolol.

Beta-Blockers Uses:

  • Hypertension.
  • Angina pectoris,
  • Cardiac arrest
  • Myocardial infarction.
  • Congestive cardiac failure,
  • Obstructive cardiomyopathy,
  • Pheochromocytoma.
  • Thyrotoxicosis.
  • Glaucoma.
  • Prophylaxis of migraine.
  • Anxiety.

Beta-Blockers Adverse Reactions:

  • Bradycardia.
  • Precipitates CCF and acute pulmonary edema,
  • Cold extremities.
  • Precipitates asthma.
  • Insomnia, depression, hallucination, fatigue.
  • Weakness, dizziness. a Rebound hypertension.

Question 11. Digoxin.

Answer:

Digoxin

Digoxin is a cardiac glycoside.

Digoxin Uses:

  • Congestive cardiac failure.
  • Cardiac arrhythmia.
  • B Atrial fibrillation
  • Atrial flutter
  • Paroxysmal supraventricular tachycardia.

Digoxin Adverse Effects:

  • Inhibits Na+/K+ – ATPase.
  • Anorexia, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea.
  • Directly stimulates chemoreceptor trigger zone (CTZ)
  • Weakness.
  • Confusion, hallucination.
  • Blurred vision.
  • Gynaecomastia.
  • Cardiac toxicity.

Digoxin Contraindications:

  • Hypokalemia.
  • Myocardial infarction.
  • Thyrotoxicosis.
  • Acid-base imbalance.

Hypertension short note

Question 12. Anti-platelet drugs.

Answer:

Anti-Platelet Drugs

Antiplatelet drugs are drugs that interfere with platelet function.

Anti-Platelet Drugs Classification:

  1. PG synthesis inhibitor – Aspirin.
  2. Phosphodiesterase inhibitor – dipyridamol.
  3. ADP antagonists – ticlopidine, clopidogrel.
  4. Glycoprotein 2b/3a receptors antagonist – Abciximab.
  5. Others – PGI2.

Anti-Platelet Drugs Uses:

  • Myocardial infarction.
  • Unstable angina.
  • In patients with prosthetic heart valves, valvular disease and, and se, coronary artery bypass surgery.
  • Cerebral thrombosis.
  • Atrial fibrillation.

Disease Of The Hepatobiliary System Short Essays

by

Disease Of The Hepatobiliary System Important Notes

  1. Hepatic Carcinoma
    • Hepatic Carcinoma is cancer of the liver
    • Hepatic Carcinoma Etiology
      • Hepatitis B and C
      • Cirrhosis of liver
      • Wilsons disease
      • Haemochromatosis
      • Estrogen and androgen
      • Anabolic steroids
      • Alcohol
    • Hepatic Carcinoma Clinical Features
      • Yellow skin
      • Bloating from fluid in the abdomen
      • Easy bruising
      • Loss of appetite
      • Weight loss
      • Abdominal pain
      • Nausea, vomiting
      • Fatigue
      • Polycythemia
      • Hypoglycaemia
      • Hypercalcemia
  2.  Liver Abscess
    • It is a pus-filled mass inside the liver
    • Liver Abscess Etiology
      • Portal vein bacteremia
      • Systemic bacteremia
      • Ascending cholangitis
      • Penetrating trauma
      • Direct extension from focus of infection
    • Liver Abscess Clinical features
      • Jaundice
      • Abdominal pain
      • Nausea, vomiting
      • Dark urine
      • Clay-colored stools
      • Fever with chills
      • Loss of appetite
      • Weight loss
      • Weakness
  3. Jaundice
    • The yellow pigmentation of the skin, mucous membrane & deeper tissues due to increased bilirubin levels in blood is called jaundice
    • It occurs when the bilirubin level exceeds 2 mg%
    • Jaundice Types:Disease Of the Hepatobiliary System Jaundice Types
  4. Cirrhosis Of The Liver – Features
    • Jaundice
    • Hepatomegaly
    • Ascites
    • Spider telangiectasia
    • Loss of libido
    • Gynaecomastia
    • Bruises, epistaxis
    • Portal hypertension
    • Clubbing
  5. Ascites
    • It is an abnormal collection of fluid in the peritoneum
    • Clinical features
      • Abdominal enlargement
      • Stretching sensation
      • Low back pain
      • Indigestion
      • Heart bum
      • Dyspnoea or tachypnoea
      • Abdominal or inguinal hernia
      • Hepatosplenomegaly
  6. Ascitic Fluid In Different DiseasesDisease Of the Hepatobiliary System Ascitic Fluid IOn Different Diseases
  7. Hepatic Encephalopathy
    • It is a neuropsychiatric syndrome caused by liver disease
    • Precipitating factors
      • Infection
      • Hypokalaemia
      • Constipation
      • GI bleeding
      • Dehydration
      • Drug
      • Trauma
  8. Hepatomegaly
    • Hepatomegaly Cause
      • Hepatomegaly Vascular
        • Congestive cardiac failure
        • Hepatic vein thrombosis
        • Hemolytic anemia
      • Hepatomegaly Bile duct obstruction
        • Stone
        • Tumour
      • Hepatomegaly Infiltrative
        • leukemia
        • Lymphoma
        • Fatty liver
        • Fat storage disease
        • Amyloidosis

Read And Learn More: General Medicine Question and Answers

      • Parasitic
        • Malaria
        • Kala-azar
        • Hydatid disease
      • Inflammatory
        • Hepatitis
        • Typhoid fever
      • Tumor
      • Rare
        • Polycystic disease of the liver
  2. Types Of Liver Enlargement
    Disease Of the Hepatobiliary System Types Of Liver Enlargement
  3. Splenomegaly
    • Splenomegaly Causes
      • Infection
        • Bacterial – endocarditis, tuberculosis
        • Viral – hepatitis, AIDS
        • Protozoal – malaria
        • Spirochaetal – syphilis
        • Fungal – Histoplasmosis
      • Inflammatory
        • Rheumatoid arthritis
        • Sarcoidosis
      • Congestive splenomegaly
        • Portal hypertension
        • Hepatic vein thrombosis
        • Pericardial effusion
      • Hemolytic disorders
        • Spherocytosis
        • Thalassaemia
      • Infiltrative diseases
        • Amyloidosis
        • Acute leukemia
      • Miscellaneous
        • Iron deficiency anemia
        • Idiopathic
        • Sarcoidosis

Hepatobiliary diseases short essay

Disease Of The Hepatobiliary System Short Essays

Question 1. Hepatitis A.

Answer:

Hepatitis A

It is caused by the Hepatitis A virus.

Hepatitis A Mode of Transmission:

  • Faeco-oral route.
  • Contaminated water and milk.
  • Blood transfusion.
  • Homosexual activity.

Hepatitis A Clinical Features:

  1. Incubation period 15-45 days.
    • Prodromal symptoms – Anicteric phase.
    • Icteric phase.
    • Recovery phase.

Hepatitis A Investigations:

  1. Serum transaminases – Rises.
  2. Serum bilirubin – Rises (5 – 20 mg %)
  3. Leucocytosis, neutropenia.
  4. Prothrombin time – normal or prolonged.
  5. Scrum alkaline phosphatase – normal.
  6. Urine urobilinogen – Increased.
  7. Bile salts and bile pigments – Appears in urine.
  8. Ultrasound – shows an enlarged liver.

Hepatitis A Treatment:

  • Bed rest.
  • High protein and high carbohydrate intake.
  • 4 glucose administration. n Avoid hepatotoxic drugs.
  • Use of H2 blockers and antacids.

Question 2. Hepatitis E.

Answer:

Hepatitis E

Hepatitis E is caused by hepatitis E virus.

Hepatitis E Etiology:

  • Poor hygiene and sanitation.
  • Mode of transmission – Faeco – oral route.

Hepatitis E Clinical Features:

  • Incubation period – 3 – 8 weeks.
  • Hepatitis E does not progress to chronicity.

Hepatitis E Diagnosis:

  • Detection of anti-HEV antibodies,
    • IgM – during the early phase.
    • IgG – after recovery.

Liver disease short essay questions

Question 3. Chronic active hepatitis.

Answer:

Chronic active hepatitis

Chronic hepatitis is defined as any hepatitis lasting 6 months or longer.

Chronic active hepatitis Causes:

  1. Infective.
    • Hepatitis B, C, and D.
  2. Toxic.
    • Drugs – alpha – methyldopa, isoniazid.
    • Alcohol.
  3. Metabolic.
    • Hemochromatosis.
    • Wilson’s disease.
  4. Other
    • Autoimmune hepatitis.

Disease Of the Hepatobiliary System Chronic Active Hepatitis

Question 4. Discuss the etiology and clinical features of ascites.

Answer:

Ascites: Abnormal collection of fluid in peritoneum e c.tll< d ascites.

Ascites Etiology:

  1. Systemic causes.
    • Nephrotic syndrome.
    • Cirrhosis of liver
    • Hypoproteinaemia.
    • Congestive cardiac failure.
    • Malignancy of the liver.
  2. Local causes.
    • Peritonitis
    • Tuberculosis.
    • Pancreatitis.

Ascites  Clinical Features: 

  • Abdominal enlargement.
  • Stretching sensation
  • Low back pain
  • Indigestion, heartburn
  • Dyspnoea or tachypnoea.
  • Abdominal or inguinal hermia.
  • Hepatosplenomegaly.

Question 5. Complications Of Hepatitis B 

Answer:

Complications Of Hepatitis B

  • Cirrhosis of liver
  • Liver cancer
  • Liver failure
  • Chronic renal diseases

Gallbladder diseases short notes

Question 6. Obstructive jaundice – investigation.

Answer:

Obstructive jaundice – investigation

  1. Hemoglobin level – normal.
  2. Bile Salts and bile pigment.
    • Present in urine
    • Absent in stools
  3. Bilirubin – raised, conjugated.
  4. Serum cholesterol – raised.
  5. Serum alkaline phosphate – raised
  6. Serum transaminase – mildly raised.
  7. USG – shows dilatation of intrahepatic and extra-hepatic biliary system.

Disease Of The Hepatobiliary System Cholestatic Pattern Of LFTs

Question 7. Hepatomegaly.

Answer:

Hepatomegaly

Enlargement of the liver is called hepatomegaly.

Hepatomegaly Causes:

  1. Vascular changes.
    • Congestive cardiac failure.
    • hepatic vein thrombosis
    • hemolytic anemia.
  2. Bile duct obstruction
    • Due to stone, tumour.
  3. Infiltrative causes.
    • leukaemia.
    • Lymphoma
    • Fatty liver
    • Amyloidosis.
  4. Parasitic infection.
    • Malaria
    • Kala-azar
    • Amoebic liver abscess
  5. Inflammatory disease
    • hepatitis
    • Typhoid fever.
  6. Tumors
    • Primary or secondary in River.

Hepatic failure short essay

Question 8. Tender hepatomegaly – causes.

Answer:

Tender Hepatomegaly Causes:

  • Hepatitis
  • Malignancy
  • Hepatic vein thrombosis
  • Congestive cardiac failure
  • Constrictive pericarditis.

Question 9. Hepatitis B – prevention.

Answer:

Hepatitis B – prevention

Two HBV vaccines are available.

  1. Recombivax HB
  2. Engerix – B
    • 3 injections of it are administered over six months.

Hepatitis B – Prevention Recommended For:

  • All infants at birth
  • Children – 18 years or above who have not been vaccinated previously.
  • Anyone who is undergoing treatment for sexually transmitted disease.
  • Injection drug users.
  • People with chronic liver diseases
  • Residents and staff for developmentally disabled individuals.
  • Hemodialysis patients.
  • People living with HIV.

Question 10.  Hepatitis C.

Answer:

Hepatitis C

Caused by hepatitis C, RNA virus.

Hepatitis C Route of Transmission:

  • Blood transfusions.
  • 4 drug user
  • Sexual transmission.

Hepatitis C Clinical Features:

  • Incubation period – 45 – 50 days.
  • Insidious in onset.
  • Produces moderate hepatitis.
  • Occurs in all age groups.
  • It leads to.
    • Vasculitis.
    • Arthritis
    • Glomerulonephritis.
    • Cryoglobulinaemia.
  • Its chronicity leads to
    • Cirrhosis of liver
    • Hepatocellular carcinoma
    • Liver failure.

Question 11. Complications of cirrhosis of the liver.

Answer:

Complications Of Cirrhosis Of The Liver

  • Portal hypertension
  • Hepatic
  • encephalopathy
  • Hepatorenal syndrome.
  • Hepatic cell carcinoma.
  • Fulminant septicaemia.
  • Fatal bleeding.
  • Peritonitis.

Question 12. Portal hypertension.

Answer:

Complications Of Cirrhosis Of The Liver

Complications Of Cirrhosis Of The Liver is defined as prolonged elevation of portal venous pressure above normal levels.

Portal Hypertension Causes:

  1. Prehepatic causes.
    • Portal vein thrombosis.
  2. Intrahepatic causes.
    • Cirrhosis.
    • Congenital hepatic fibrosis.
    • Drugs.
    • Sarcoidosis.
    • Secondaries in the liver.
  3. Post hepatic causes.
    • Budd-Chiari syndrome
    • Right heart failure.

Portal Hypertension Clinical Features:

  • Haemetemesis or malena.
  • Ascites,
  • Splenomegaly.
  • Fetor hepaticus.
  • Chronic hepatic encephalopathy.

Portal hypertension short essay notes

Question 13. Hepatic encephalopathy.

Answer:

Hepatic Encephalopathy

Hepatic Encephalopathy is a syndrome of mental and neurological features that occur in patients with long-standing cirrhosis with or without portal hypertension.

Hepatic Encephalopathy Clinical Features:

  • Impaired celebration.
  • Moderate to severe jaundice.
  • Fetor hepaticus.
  • Flapping tremors.
  • Cirrhosis.
  • Portal hypertension.
  • Fever
  • Tachycardia.
  • Hyperventilation.
  • Hypotension.

Question 14. Spider nevi.

Answer:

Spider Nevi is one of the features occurring due to arteriolar changes induced hyperestrogenism.

  • They are dilated central arterioles with radiating small vessels.

Spider Nevi Parts Involved:

  • Parts drained by superior vena cava.
    • Head
    • Neck
    • Upper limbs
    • Front and back of the chest.
  • Size: Varies from 1- 2 mm to 1 – 2 cm in diameter.
  • Seen In:
    • Cirrhosis of liver
    • Chronic hepatic dysfunction.

Question 15. Splenomegaly-causes.

Answer:

Splenomegaly-Causes

  1.  Infective disorders.
    • Bacterial – Endocarditis, tuberculosis, septicaemia.
    • Viral – Hepatitis, AIDS.
    • Protozoal malaria.
    • Spirochaetal – syphilis.
    • Fungal – Histoplasmosis.
  2. Inflammatory disorders.
    • Rheumatoid arthritis, sarcoidosis.
  3. Congestive splenomegaly.
    • Portal hypertension.
    • Hepatic vein thrombosis.
    • Pericardial effusion.
  4. Hemolytic disorders.
    • Spherocytosis, thalassemia.
  5. Infiltrative diseases.
    • Amyloidosis.
    • Gaucher’s disease
    • Aclucleukemia.
  6. Miscellaneous.
  7. Iron deficiency anemia.
  8. Idiopathic
  9. Sarcoidosis.

VIVA VOCE

  1. Glucose is stored in the liver in the form of glycogen
  2. The liver utilizes amino acids for endogenous protein synthesis and plasma protein synthesis
  3. Conjugation of unconjugated bilirubin occurs in liver cells with the help of glucuronyltrans- phrase
  4. Kupffer cells are derived from blood monocytes and have immunological functions
  5. Normal bilirubin level – 0.3-1.0 mg/dl
  6. Normal alkaline phosphatase level – 25-115 U/L
  7. Normal acid phosphatase level – 1-5 U/l
  8. The normal prothrombin time index is 100%
  9. Transudative ascites is seen in cirrhosis of the liver
  10. Blood-stained ascites are seen in malignant infiltration of the peritoneum
  11. Milky ascites is seen in ductal obstruction
  12. Exudative ascites are seen in TB, malignancy, and hepatic vein obstruction
  13. Serum bilirubin level more than 2.5 mg/dl leads to jaundice
  14. Potassium-sparing diuretics are used in ascites
  15. Budd Chiari syndrome occurs from occlusion of the hepatic vein
  16. Collection of fluid more than 300 ml in the peritoneum leads to ascites

 

Diseases Of Blood And Lymphoreticular System Notes and Short Essays

by

Diseases Of Blood And Lymphoreticular System Important Notes

1. Thalassemia

Diseases Of Blood And Lymphoreticular System Thalassemia

2. Types Of Leukemia

Diseases Of Blood And Lymphoreticular System Types Of Leukemia

Diseases of blood and lymphoreticular system

3. Causes Of DIC

  • Infections like E.coli, N. meningitis, strep. Pneumonia
  • Cancers of the lung, prostate, pancreas
  • Obstetric preeclampsia, amniotic fluid embolism

Read And Learn More: General Medicine Question and Answers

4. Complications Of Polycythemia Vera

  1. Elevated red cells
  2. Splenomegaly
  3. Leukocytosis
  4. Thrombosis

5. Components That Are Destroyed Quickly From Stored Blood Are

  • WBC
  • Clotting factors
  • Platelets

6. Types Of Hemophilia

Diseases Of Blood And Lymphoreticular System Type Of Hemophilia

7. Bleeding Tests

Diseases Of Blood And Lymphoreticular System Bleeding Tests

8. Platelets

  • Normal count 1.54 lakhs/mm3
  • Increased in thrombocytosis
  • Decreased in thrombocytopenic purpura

9. Anaemia

Diseases Of Blood And Lymphoreticular System Anaemia

10. Anticoagulants

Diseases Of Blood And Lymphoreticular System Anticoagulants

11. Erythroblastosis Foetalis

  • When a Rh ve mother carries in a Rh +ve fetus, usually the first child escapes the complication of the Rh incompatibility
  • When the mother conceives for the second time and carries an Rh +ve fetus, the Rh agglutinins enter the fetus and cause agglutination of fetal RBC and hemolysis
  • Complications
    • Hydrops fetalis
    • Kernicterus

Diseases Of Blood And Lymphoreticular System Short Essays

Question 1. Sickle Cell Anaemia

Answer:

Sickle Cell Anaemia

  • Hb S is abnormal hemoglobin which gets polymerise and distorts the cell membrane to form abnormal sickle-shaped cell

Sickle Cell Anaemia Clinical features

  1. Chronic anemia features
    • Fatigue
    • Lassitude
    • Breathlessness
    • Cardiomegaly
    • Increased susceptibility to infection
    • Hyperplasia of bone marrow producing frontal bossing and malar prominence
    • Mild jaundice
    • Splenomegaly
    • Poor healing ulcers
  2. Other features
    • Pain due to blockage of small or large vessels
    • Large swelling, pain, and tenderness of fingers and toes
    • Acute abdominal colic, renal infarction
    • Painful hematuria
    • Aseptic necrosis of the head of the femur
    • Fever, malaise
    • Microembolisation of pulmonary vessels occurs in late pregnancy

Sickle Cell Anaemia Diagnosis

  • Haemoglobin low
  • Unconjugated bilirubin increases
  • Peripheral blood smear shows
    • Sickle cell, target cells, and Howell Jowel bodies
  • Positive sickling test
  • Presence of abnormal hemoglobin – HbS

Sickle Cell Anaemia Management

Diseases Of Blood And Lymphoreticular System Sickle Cell Anaemia Management

Blood disorders notes PDF

Question 2. Causes Of Megaloblastic Anaemia

Answer:

Causes Of Megaloblastic Anaemia

  • Inadequate dietary intake
  • Malabsorption
    • Intrinsic factor deficiency
      • Pernicious anaemia
      • Gastrectomy
      • Congenital lack of factor
    • Intestinal causes
      • Tropical sprue
      • Ileal resection
      • Crohn’s disease
    • Removal of B12 from intestine
      • Bacterial proliferation in intestinal blind loop syndrome
      • Fish tapeworm infestations
      • Drugs ex: PAS, neomycin

Question 3. Oral Manifestations Of Leukemia

Answer:

Gingiva

  • Gingivitis
  • Gingival hyperplasia
  • Enlargement of interdental papilla
  • Swollen gingival tissue
  • Cyanotic bluish discoloration of gingiva
  • Thrombosis of gingival vessels

Teeth

  • Rapid loosening of teeth
  • Alteration in developing tooth crypts
  • Destruction of lamina dura
  • Displacement of teeth

Oral mucosa

  • Thinning of oral mucosa
  • Petechiae and ecchymosis over oral mucosa
  • Development of multiple large irregular necrotic ulcers

Other

  • Large hematomas over the lower lip
  • Oral infections
  • Palatal ulcerations
  • Mental nerve neuropathy
  • Prolonged postoperative bleeding
  • Osteomyelitis of jaw

Question 4. Iron Deficiency Anaemia

Answer:

Iron Deficiency Anaemia

  • Iron Deficiency Anaemia is A chronic, microcytic, hypochromic anemia that occurs either due to inadequate absorption or excessive loss of iron from the body

Iron Deficiency Anaemia Clinical Features:

  1. Anaemia:
    • Usual symptoms are weakness, fatigue, dyspnoea on exertion, palpitations, pallor of skin, mucous membranes, and sclera.
    • Older patients may develop angina and congestive cardiac failure.
    • Womenmenorrhagia is a common symptom.
  2. Epithelial tissue changes:
    • Nails (koilonychia or spoon-shaped nails)
    • Tongue (Atrophic glossitis)
    • Mouth (angular stomatitis)

Iron Deficiency Anaemia  Diagnosis:

  • Serum iron and ferritin are low.
  • Total iron binding capacity is increased Transferrin saturation is below 16%.
  • Stool examination for parasites and occult blood is useful.
  • Endoscopic and radiographic examination of GI tract is needed to detect the source of bleeding.
  • Hematological findings: Examination of peripheral blood picture.
  • Size: Microcytic anisocytotic a Chromicity: Anisochromia is present.
  • Shape: Poikilocytosis is often present, pear-shaped tailed variety of RBC, elliptical form common.
  • Reticulocytes: Present, either normal/reduced
  • Osmotic fragility: slightly decreased
  • ESR: Seldom elevated
  • Absolute value: MCV, MCH, and MCEIC are reduced.

Bone Marrow Findings:

  • Marrow cellularity increased due to erythroid hypoplasia micronormoblast.
  • Marrow iron reduce reticuloendothelial iron stores and absence of siderotic iron granules from developing normoblasts.

Iron Deficiency Anaemia  Management:

  • Iron supplement
  • Ferrous sulfate 300 mg 34 times/day for 6 months only
  • Iron sorbitol 1.5 mg/kg body weight given parentally

Lymphoreticular system diseases

Question 5. Aplastic Anaemia clinical features

Answer:

Aplastic Anaemia

  • Aplastic anemia is characterized by
    • Anaemia
    • Leukopenia
    • Thrombocytopenia
    • Hypocellular bone marrow

Aplastic Anaemia Clinical Features:

  • Anaemia
  • Excessive tendency to bleed
  • Easy bruising
  • Epilaxis
  • Gum bleeding
  • Heavy menstrual flow
  • Petechiae
  • Predisposition to infections

Question 6. Megaloblastic anaemia

Answer:

Megaloblastic Anaemia

  • Megaloblastic Anaemia is macrocytic anaemia with megaloblasts in the bone marrow

Etiology:

  1. Inadequate dietary intake
  2. Malabsorption
    • Intrinsic factor deficiency
      • Pernicious anaemia
      • Gastrectomy
      • Congenital lack of factor
    • Intestinal causes
      • Tropical sprue
      • Ileal resection
      • Crohn’s disease
    • Removal of B12 from the intestines
      • Bacterial proliferation in intestinal blind loop syndrome
      • Fish tapeworm infestation
    • Drugs for example, PAS, neomycin

Megaloblastic Anaemia Clinical Features:

  • Anemia,
  • Glossitis
  • Neurological manifestations numbness, paraesthesia, weakness, ataxia, diminished reflexes
  • Others mild jaundice, angular stomatitis, purpura, malabsorption, anorexia

Megaloblastic Anaemia Management:

  1. Vitamin B12 deficiency
    • Parenteral administration of hydroxocobalamin 1000 microgram twice a week during first week
    • followed by 1000 microgram weekly for 6 weeks
    • Maintenance therapy includes hydroxocobalamin 1000 microgram intramuscular every 3 months for rest of life
  2. folate deficiency
    1. Daily dose of 5 mg of folic acid as initial dose
    2. Dose of 5 mg of folic acid once a week as a maintenance dose

Question 7. Plummer Vinson syndrome

Answer:

Plummer Vinson Syndrome

  • Plummer Vinson Syndrome is characterised by dysphagia, iron doccie anaemia, dystrophy of nails and glossits

Plummer Vinson Syndrome Clinical Features:

  • Common in middle age females
  • Dysphagia
  • Angular chelitis
  • Spasm in throat
  • Sore mouth
  • A smooth, red, and enlarged tongue
  • Oral mucosa is pale and painful
  • Dry mouth
  • Spoon shaped nails

Plummer-Vinson Syndrome Diagnosis

  • Biopsy shows:
  • Atrophic epithelium
  • Atrophy of the lamina propria and muscles

Plummer-Vinson Syndrome Management:

  • Correction of anaemia
  • Esophageal dilation

Anemia types and management

Question 8. Eosinophilia

Answer:

Eosinophilia Clinical features:

  • Dysponea
  • Orthopnoca
  • Wheezing
  • Cough with mucoid expectoration
  • Chest pain

Eosinophilia Management:

  • DiethvlrarbamaZine2 mg/kg three firms a day for 2 weeks
  • Antihistamines are given to treat allergic reations

Question 9. Tropical Eosinophilia

Answer:

Tropical Eosinophilia

  • It is characterised by the presence of hypereosinophilia, circulating filarial antibodies, microfilaria in tissues
  • Commonly seen in tropical countries like India, and Sri Lanka. Indonesia, Pakistan and Southeast Asia
  • Patient may have lymphadenopathy, splenomegaly,chronic, cough, nocturnal bronchospasm

Tropical Eosinophilia Diagnosis:

  • History of prolong stay in endemic area
  • Lack of microfilaria in peripheral blood
  • Peripheral eosinophilia
  • IgE levels of atleast 1000 units/ ml

Tropical Eosinophilia Management:

  • Diethylcarbamazine-2 mg/kg three times a day for 2 weeks
  • Antihistamines are given to treat allergic reactions

Question 10. Discuss An Approach To Bleeding Disorders

Answer:

  1. Investigations of disordered vasiular hemostasis
    • Bleeding time
      • It is based on the principle of formation of hemostatic plug following a standard incision on the ulnar aspect of the forearm and the time from incision to when bleeding stops is measured
      • Normal-3-8 minutes
    • Hess capillary resistance test
      • This test is done by tying the sphygmomanometer cuff to the upper arm and raising the pressure in it between diastolic and systolic for 5 minutes
      • After deflation, the number of petechiae appear in the next 5 minutes in 3 camera over the cubital fossa are counted
      • Piesence of more than 20 petechiae is considered a positive test
  2. Investigation of blood coagulation
    • Screening test
      • Whole blood coagulation time
        • The estimation of whole blood coagulation time done by various capillary and tube method
        • Normal value-4-9 minutes
      • Activated partial thromboplastin time (PTTK)
        • This test is used to measure the intrinsic system factors as well as factors common to both intrinsic and extrinsic factors
        • One stage prothrombin time measures the extrinsic system factor 6 as well as factors in the common pathway
    • Special tests
      • Coagulation factor assays
        • These are based on the results of PTTK or prothrombin time tests
      • Quantitative assays
        • Done by immunological and other chemical methods

Question 11. Clinical features and management of acute myeloid leukemia

Answer:

Acute myeloid leukemia is a heterogenous disease charaterised by the infiltration of malignant myeloid cells into the blood, bone marrow, and other tissues

Acute Myeloid Leukemia Clinical Features:

  • Anemia-producing pallor, lethargy, dyspnoea
  • Thrombocytopenia
  • Spontaneous bruises
  • Petechiae, bleeding from gums, and other bleeding tendencies
  • Infections
  • Fever
  • Pain and tenderness of bones
  • Lymphadenopathy
  • Splenomegaly
  • Hepatomegaly
  • Leukemic infiltration of the kidney
  • Gum hypertrophy
  • Testicular swelling

Acute Myeloid Leukemia  Management:

  • Regular platelet transfusion
  • Prophylaxis against infections
  • Combination of three drugs is used
    • Cytosine arabinoside
    • Anthracyclines
    • 6-thioguanine
  • Bone marrow transplantation

Leukemia short essay

Question 12. Clinical Features And Management Of Chronic Myeloid Leukemia

Answer:

Chronic Myeloid Leukemia Clinical Features:

  • Onset is usually slow, initial symptoms are often nonspecific.g: weakness, pallor, dyspnoea, and tachycardia.
  • Symptoms due to hypermetabolism such as weight loss, anorexia, night sweats.
  • Splenomegaly is almost always present and is frequently massive. In some patients, it may be associated with acute pain due to splenic infarction.
  • Bleeding tendencies such as bruising, epistaxis, menorrhagia, and heamatomas may occur.
  • Visual disturbance, neurologic manifestations.
  • Juvenile CML is more often associated with lymph node enlargement than splenomegaly.

Chronic Myeloid Leukemia Management:

  • Imatinib oral therapy
  • Allogenic bone marrow transplantation
  • Interferon-alpha
  • Chemotherapy drugs used are busulfan, cyclophosphamide, and hydroxyurea

Question 13. Oral manifestations of hematological disorders transfusion

Answer:

Oral Manifestations Of Hematological Disorders Transfusion

  • Gingivasevere hemorrhage
  • Soft tissue hematoma formation
  • Jawrecurrent subperiosteal hematoma
  • Tumourlike malformation B Teethhigh caries index
  • Severe periodontal disease
  • Oropharyngeal bleeding
  • Severe bleeding at the injection site

Question 14. Complications of blood transfusion

Answer:

Complications Of Blood Transfusion

  1. Transfusion reactions
    • Incompatibility due to
      • Incompatible transfusion
      • Transfusion of hemolysed blood
      • Transfusion of expired blood
    • Pyrexia reactions characterized by
      • Pyrexia
      • Chill
      • Rigor
      • Restlessness
      • Headache
      • Increased pulse rate
      • Nausea and vomiting
    • Allergic reactions
      • Mild tachycardia
      • Urticarial rash
      • Fever
      • Dyspnoea
    • Sensitization to leucocytes and platelets
  2. Transmission of diseases like
    • Hepatitis
    • AIDS
    • Bacterial infections
  3. Reactions caused by massive transfusion
    • Acid base imbalance
    • Hyperkalaemia
    • Citrate toxicity
    • Hypothermia
    • Failure of coagulation
  4. Complication of general intravenous fluid transfusion
    • Congestive cardiac failure
  5. Complication of general intravenous fluid transfusion
    • Thrombophlebitis
    • Air embolism

Lymphoma short notes

Question 15. Idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura investigations and treatment

Answer:

Idiopathic Thrombocytopenic Purpura

  • Idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura is an autoimmune disorder due to antibodies directed against platelet membrane glycoprotein resulting in the premature clearance of these cells by the immune system

Idiopathic Thrombocytopenic Purpura Investigations:

  • Chronic history of bleeding
  • Bleeding time is prolonged
  • Reduced platelet count
  • Bone marrow shows increased megakaryocytes indicating peripheral destruction of platelets

Idiopathic Thrombocytopenic Purpura Management:

  • Self-limiting in children
  • Moderate to severe ITP is treated with prednisolone 2 mg/ kg daily orally
  • In adults prednisolone 60 mg dialysis started and then continued for 24 weeks and then slowly withdrawn
  • In severe cases, intravenous immunoglobulin IgG should be given in a dose of 1 g/kg

Diseases Of Blood And Lymphoreticular System Short Answers

Question 1. Sickle cell anaemia

Answer:

Sickle Cell Anaemia

  • Hb S is abnormal hemoglobin which gets polymerise and distort the cell membrane to form abnormal sickle-shaped cell

Sickle Cell Anaemia Clinical features

  • Chronic Anaemia Features
    • Fatigue
    • Lassitude
    • Breathlessness
    • Cardiomegaly
    • Increased susceptibility to infection
    • Hyperplasia of bone marrow producing frontal bossing and malar prominence
    • Mild jaundice
    • Splenomegaly
    • Poor healing ulcers
  • Other Features
    • Pain due to blockage of small or large vessels
    • Large swelling, pain and tenderness of fingers and toes
    • Acute abdominal colic, renal infarction
    • Painful hematuria
    • Aseptic necrosis of head of femur
    • Fever, malaise
    • Microembolisation of pulmonary vessels occurs in late pregnancy

Question 2. Von Willebrand disease

Answer:

Von Willebrand Disease

  • Von Willebrand Disease is coagulation disorder

Von Willebrand Disease Causes And Related Features

  • Platelet Dysfunction Leads To
    • Superficial bruising
    • Epitaxis
    • Menorrhagia
    • GI bleeding
  • Low Levels Of Von Willebrand Factor
    • Depending on the level of vWF, 3 types of disease occur

Von Willebrand Disease Diagnosis:

  • Abnormal platelet function
  • Increased bleeding time
  • Normal prothrombin time
  • Decreased factor 8
  • Reduced vWF

Question 3. Causes of pancytopenia

Answer:

Pancytopenia

  • Pancytopenia is a simultaneous presence of anaemia, leucopenia, and thrombocytopenia
  • pancytopenia Causes
    • Aplastic anaemia
    • Paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria
    • Megaloblastic anaemia
    • Bone marrow infiltration

Question 4. Peripheral smear in iron deficiency anaemia

Answer:

Peripheral Smear In Iron Deficiency Anaemia

  • Hematological findings: Examination of peripheral blood picture.
  • Size: Microcytic anisocytosis
  • Chromicity: Anisochromia is present.
  • Shape: Poikilocytosis is often present, pear-shaped tailed variety of RBC, elliptical form common.
  • Reticulocytes: Present, either normal/reduced
  • Osmotic Fragility: slightly decreased
  • ESR: Seldom elevated
  • Absolute Value: MCV, MCH, and MCHC are reduced.

Question 5. Treatment Of Iron Deficiency Anaemia

Answer:

Iron Supplement

  • Ferrous sulfate 300 mg 34 times/day for 6 months only
  • Iron sorbitol 1.5 mg/kg body weight given parentally

Question 6. Iron therapy

Answer:

Iron Preparations:

  1. Oral iron preparations
    • It is the preferred route of administration
    • Preparations:
      • Ferrous sulfate 200 mg tab
        • Contains 20% hydrated salt and 32% dried salt
        • It is inexpensive
        • Produces metallic taste in mouth
      • Ferrous gluconate 300 mg tab
        • Contains 12% of iron
        • Causes less gastric irritation
      • Ferrous fumarate 200 mg tab
        • Contains 33% iron
        • It is less water soluble and tasteless
      • Ferrous succinate 100 mg tab, 35% iron
        • Better absorbed and expensive
      • Iron calcium complex 5% iron
        • Better absorbed and expensive
      • Ferric ammonium citrate 45 mg tab
        • Better absorbed and expensive
    • Dose:
      • Total 200 mg given daily in 3 divided doses
      • Prophylactic dose 30 mg daily
    • Indications:
      • Iron deficiency anaemia
    • Adverse Effects:
      • Nausea, vomiting, epigastric pain
      • Heart bum
      • Staining of teeth
      • Metallic taste
      • Constipation
  2. Parenteral iron preparations
    • Intramuscular injection of iron is given deep in the gluteal region using Z technique
    • Intravenous is given slowly over 510 minutes
    • Preparations:
      • Iron dextran
        • It is colloidal solution containing 50 mg elemental iron
        • It is given intravenously and Intramuscularly
      • Iron sorbitol citric acid complex
        • Contains 50 mg elemental iron
        • Can be given only IM
        • If given 4 it quickly saturates transferrin stores
        • Due to it free iron levels in the plasma rises and causes toxicity
    • Dose:
      • It is calculated using formula:
      • Iron requirement ( in mg) = 4.4 * body weight (in kg) * Hb deficit (in g/ dl)
    • Indications:
      • When oral iron is not tolerated
      • Failure of absorption of oral iron
      • Noncompliance
      • In presence of severe deficiency with chronic bleeding
      • Along with erythropoietin
    • Adverse Effects:
      • Pain at the site of injection
      • Pigmentation of skin
      • Sterile abscess
      • Fever
      • Headache
      • Joint pain, flushing, palpitation
      • Chest pain, dyspnoea
      • Anaphylactic reaction

Classification of anemia short essay

Question 7. Megaloblastic anaemia

Answer:

Megaloblastic Anaemia

  • Megaloblastic Anaemia is macrocytic anaemia with megaloblasts in the bone marrow

Etiology:

  1. Inadequate dietary intake
  2. Malabsorption
    • Intrinsic factor deficiency
      • Pernicious anaemia
      • Gastrectomy
      • Congenital lack of factor
    • Intestinal causes
      • Tropical sprue
      • Ileal resection
      • Crohn’s disease
    • Removal of B12 from the intestines
      • Bacterial proliferation in intestinal blind loop syndrome
      • Fish tape worm infestation
    • Drugs, for example, PAS, neomycin

Megaloblastic Anaemia Clinical Features:

  • Aneamia
  • Glossitis
  • Neurological manifestations numbness, paraesthesia, weakness, ataxia, diminished reflexes.
  • Othersmild jaundice, angular stomatitis, purpura, malabsorption, anorexia

Question 8. Four causes of anaemia

Answer:

Four Causes Of Anaemia

  1. Anaemia due to increased blood loss
    • Acute posthaemorrhagic anaemia
    • Chronic blood loss
  2. Anaemias due to impaired red cell production
    • Cytoplasmic maturation defects
      • Deficient Haem Synthesis:
        • Iron deficiency anaemia
      • Deficient Globin Synthesis:
        • Thalassaemic syndromes
    • Nuclear maturation defects
      • Vitamin B12 and/or folic acid deficiency:
      • Megaloblastic anaemia
    • Defect in stem cell proliferation and differentiation
      • Aplastic anaemia
      • Pure red cell aplasia
    • Anaemia of chronic disorders
    • Bone marrow infiltration
    • Congenital anaemia
  3. Anaemias due to increased red cell destruction (Haemolytic anaemias).
    • Extrinsic (Extracorpuscular) red cell abnormalities
    • Intrinsic (Intracorpuscular) red cell abnormalities

Question 9. Causes of iron deficiency anaemia

Answer:

Causes Of Iron Deficiency Anaemia

  • Inadequate intake of iron in diet
  • Malabsorption of iron due to diarrhea
  • Increased requirement in growing child and in pregnanacy
  • Increased loss of iron due to injury, epitaxis, and peptic ulcer
  • Gastrotomy

Question 10. Hemolytic anaemia

Answer:

Hemolytic Anaemia Definition:

  • Hemolytic Anaemia is an abnormal exessive destruction of red cells that overwhelms the compensatory capacity of the bone marrow

Etiology:

  1. Congenital
    • Abnormalities of red cell membrane
    • Disorders of haemoglobin
    • Red cell enzyme defects
  2. Acquired
    • Immune defects
    • Nonimmune defects

Question 11. Two drugs used in eosinophilia

Answer:

Two Drugs Used In Eosinophilia

  • Drugs used in eosinophilia are
  1. Prednisolone
  2. Diethylcarbamazine

Question 12. Classification of leukemia

Answer:

Leukemia

  1. Based on cell types predominantly involved.
    • Myeloid
    • Lymphoid.
  2. Based on natural history of disease:
    • Acute
    • Chronic.

WHO Classification Of Myeloid Meoplasm:

  1. Myeloproliferative Diseases:
    • Chronic myeloid leukaemia (CML), {Ph chromosome t(9;22), BCR/ABLpositive}
    • Chronic neutrophilic leukaemia
    • Chronic eosinophilic leukaemia/ hypereosinophilic syndrome
    • Chronic idiopathic myelofibrosis
    • Polycythaemia vera (PV)
    • Essential thrombocythaemia (ET)
    • Chronic myeloproliferative disease, unclassifiable
  2. Myelodysplastic/Myeloproliferative Diseases:
    • Chronic myelomonocytic leukaemia (CMML)
  3. Myelodysplastic Syndrome (MDS):
    • Refractory anaemia (RA)
    • Refractory anaemia with ring sideroblasts (RARS)
    • Refractory cytopenia with multilineage dysplasia (RCMD)
    • RCMD with ringed sideroblasts (RCMD-RS)
    • Refractory anaemia with excess blasts (RAEB-1)
    • RAEB-2
    • Myelodysplastic syndrome unclassified (MDS-U)
    • MDS with isolated del 5q
  4. Acute Myeloid Leukaemia (AML):
    • AML with recurrent cytogenetic abnormalities
      • AML with t(8;21)
      • AML with abnormal bone marrow eosinophils
      • Acute promyelocytic leukaemia (t(15;17)
      • AML with 11q23 abnormalities (MLL)
    • AML with multilineage dysplasia
      • With prior MDS
      • Without prior MDS
    • AML and MDS, therapy-related
      • Alkylating agent related
      • Topoisomerase type 2 inhibitor-related
      • Other types
    • AML, not otherwise categorised
      • AML, minimally differentiated
      • AML without maturation
      • AML with maturation
      • Acute myelomonocytic leukaemia (AMML)
      • Acute monoblastic and monocytic leukaemia
      • Acute erythroid leukaemia
      • Acute megakaryocytic leukaemia
      • Acute basophilic leukaemia
      • Acute panmyelosis with myelofibrosis
      • Myeloid sarcoma
  5. Acute Biphenotypic Leukaemia

Diagnosis and treatment of hemophilia

Question 13.Chronic myeloid leukemia

Answer:

Chronic Myeloid Leukemia Clinical Features:

  • Onset is usually slow, initial symptoms are often nonspecific.g: weakness, pallor, dyspnoea, and tachycardia.
  • Symptoms due to hypermetabolism such as weight loss, anorexia, and night sweats.
  • Splenomegaly is almost always present and is frequently massive. In some patients, it may be associated with acute pain due to splenic infarction.
  • Bleeding tendencies such as bruising, epistaxis, menorrhagia, and hematomas may occur.
  • Visual disturbance, neurologic manifestations.
  • Juvenile CML is more often associated with lymph node enlargement than splenomegaly.

Question 14. Agranulocytosis

Answer:

Agranulocytosis

  • The term agranulocytosis is used to describe a stale of severe neutropenia.
  • A reduction in the number of granulocytes in blood is known as neutropenia.

Agranulocytosis Causes:

  • Neutropenia can be caused by following reasons.
    1. Drug induced: Anti-cancer, antibiotics, anticonvulsants, antithyroid drugs
    2. Haematological Disease: Aplastic anaemia, acute leukaemia etc.
    3. Infections: Malaria, TB, typhoid,
    4. Autoimmune: Systemic lupus erythematosis
    5. Congenital: Cyclic neutropenia.

Agranulocytosis Clinical Features:

  • Initally patient develops malaise, chills, and fever, with subsequently marked weakness and fatiguability.
  • Massive growth of microorganisms due to inability to produce leukocyte response.
  • Infections are usually present as ulcerating, necrotizing lesions of gingiva, the floor of the mouth, buccal mucosa, and other sites within oral cavity known as agranulocytic angina.
  • Lymphadenopathy and hepatosplenomegaly may be present.

Agranulocytosis Treatment:

  • Patients with neutropenia and fever must be sent to the hospital.
  • In severe infections, neutrophil transfusion must be done.
  • Broad-spectrum antibiotics and antifungal drugs are to be given.

Question 15. Management of acute leukemia

Answer:

Management Of Acute Leukemia

  • Regular platelet transfusion
  • Prophylaxis against infections
  • Combination of three drugs is used
    • Cytosine arabinosidc
    • Anthracyclines
    • 6thioguanine
  • Bone marrow transplantation

Question 16. Purpura

Answer:

Purpura Types:

  1. Nonthrombocytopenic purpura
    • It is due to defect of capillaries
  2. Thrombocytopenic purpura
    • It is due to decreased number of platelets

Purpura Clinical Features:

  • Antiplatelet globulin or antibodies to platelets in blood are present
  • Spleen is not palpable
  • Severe and profuse gingival bleeding
  • Platelet count is less than 60,000 per mm2
  • Increased bleeding time
  • Cessation of bleeding

Purpura Treatment:

  • Splenectomy

Question 17. Thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura

Answer:

Thrombotic Thrombocytopenic Purpura

  • Thrombotic Thrombocytopenic Purpura is lethal disorder of vascular endothelial damage

Thrombotic Thrombocytopenic Purpura Cause:

  • Deficiency of a protease called ADAMTS 13

Thrombotic Thrombocytopenic Purpura Clinical Features

  • Florid purpura
  • Fibrin microthrombi
  • Thrombocytopenia
  • Microangiopathic hemolytic anemia
  • Fever
  • Renal failure
  • Fluctuating levels of consciousness
  • Focal neurological signs

Thrombotic Thrombocytopenic Purpura Treatment:

  • Exchange transfusion
  • Plasmapheresis combined with infusion of fresh frozen plasma

Question 18. Idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura

Answer:

Idiopathic Thrombocytopenic Purpura

  • Idiopathic Thrombocytopenic Purpura is characterized by Immunologic destruction of platelet and normal or increased megakaryocytes in the bone marrow

Idiopathic Thrombocytopenic Purpura Types:

  • Acute ITP
  • Chronic ITP

Idiopathic Thrombocytopenic Purpura Clinical Features:

  • Usual manifestations are petechial hemorrhage, purpura, easy bruising, epistaxis, mucosal bleeding such as menorrhagia in women, nasal bleeding, bleeding from gums, and haematuria.
  • Intracranial hemorrhage is rare.
  • Splenomegaly and hepatomegaly may also occur.

Immunodeficiency disorders short notes

Question 19. Importance of hemophilia to dental surgeon

Answer:

Importance Of Hemophilia To Dental Surgeon

  • It is essential to prevent accidental damage to the oral mucosa when carrying out any procedure in the mouth
  • Blood loss can be controlled locally with direct pressure or periodontal dressings with or without topical anlifibrinolytie agents
  • Patients with bleeding disorders can be given dentures as long as they are comfortable
  • Fixed and removable orthodontic appliances may be used along with regular preventive advice and hygiene therapy
  • Endodontic treatment is generally low risk for patients with bleeding disorders
  • Aspirin should not be used

Question 20.Burkitt’s lymphoma

Answer:

Burkitt’s Lymphoma

  • Burkitt’s lymphoma is a rare type of non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma (NHL).
  • Epsteinbarr virus (EBV) and HIV are associated with the development of Burkitt’s lymphoma.
  • This is the most rapidly progressive tumour first described in African children.
  • Most patients present with lymphadenopathy and abdominal mass.
  • It has a tendency to metastasize to the CNS.
  • Treatment should be initiated promptly with intensive chemotherapy. Prophylactic chemotheiapy is also given. 70-80% patients may be cured.

Question 21. Drugs used in Hodgkin’s lymphoma

Answer:

Drugs Used In Hodgkin’s Lymphoma Are

  1. Vinblastin sulfate
  2. Bleomycin
  3. Mustargen
  4. Chlorambucil
  5. Cyclophosphamide

Question 22. Hypersplenism

Answer:

Hyperspleenism

  • Hypersplenism is defined as a clinical condition in which spleen removes excessive quantites of erythrocytes, granulocytes, and platelets from the circulation

Hyperspleenism Clinical Features:

  • Cirrhosis of the liver with portal hypertension
  • Accelerated destruction of one or more elements of blood
  • Pancytopenia
  • Infections
  • Easy bruising
  • Excessive bleeding tendencies

Hyperspleenism Treatment:

  • Treatment of the underlying disorder
  • Splenectomy
  • Supportive antibiotics
  • Blood transfusion

Question 23. Splenomegaly

Answer:

Spleenomegaly

  • Enlargement of spleen is called spleenomegaly

Splenomegaly Causes:

  1. Infective disorders
    • Bacterial
      • Endocarditis
      • Tuberculosis
      • Septicaemia
      • Salmonella
    • Viral
      • Hepatitis
      • AIDS
      • Infectious mononucleosis
    • Protozoal
      • Malaria
      • Leishmaniasis
    • Spirochaetal
      • Syphilis
    • Fungal
      • Histoplasmosis
  2. Inflammatory disorders
    • Rheumatoid arthritis
    • SLE
    • Sarcoidosis
  3. Congestive splenomegaly
    • Hepatic vein thrombosis
    • Chronic congestive heart failure
    • Pericardial effusion
  4. Diseases associated with hemolysis
    • Spherocytosis
    • Sickle cell disease
  5. Infiltrative disease of spleen
  6. Miscellaneous
    • Iron deficiency anaemia
    • Idiopathic
    • Sarcoidosis

Question 24. Causes of massive spleenomegaly

Answer:

Causes Of Massive Spleenomegaly

  • Hemolytic anaemia thalassaemia
  • Infectionsmalaria, kalaazar
  • Collagen vascular disorder rheumatoid arthritis
  • Congestionportal hypertension
  • Malignant infiltration leukemia

Question 25. Bone marrow aspiration

Answer:

Bone Marrow Aspiration

  • Bone marrow aspiration is used for bone marrow examination

Bone Marrow Aspiration Uses:

  • To study cell markers
  • Karyotyping
  • Accurate diagnosis
  • Assessment of malignant diseases
  • Assessment of cellularity
  • Details of developing blood cells
  • Detect ratio between erythroid and myeloid cells
  • Assess iron stores

Bone Marrow Aspiration Indications:

  • Infiltrative disorders
  • Parasitic diseases
  • Cytopenic disorders
  • Infective disorders

Question 26. ESR

Answer:

ESR

If a sample of blood with an anticoagulant is allowed to stand in a vertical tube, the RBC settles down due to gravity as compared to plasma with a clear supernatant layer of plasma. The rate at which the cells settle down is called ESR.

Method Of Estimation Of ESR: There are two standard methods as follows:

  1. Wintrobe’s And Landsberg’s Method: ESR is measured in undiluted blood in a hematocrit tube.
  2. Westergren’s Method: ESR is measured in venous blood diluted accurately with 31.3 g/L trisodium citratein the proportion of 1:4 (1 volume of 3.8% sodium citrate and 4 volume of blood).

The conditions were ESR is markedly raised are as follows:

  1. Infective: Tuberculosis, kala-azar, in most of the chronic infections.
  2. Inflammation: Rheumatoid arthritis, rheumatic fever, other connective tissue disorders.
  3. Neoplastic: Multiple myeloma, lymphoma, paraproteinaemia.
  4. Miscellaneous: Aplastic anaemia, autoimmune disorders, mixed connective tissue disorders.

Question 27. Three causes of neutropenia

Answer:

Three Causes Of Neutropenia

Neutropenia can be caused by following reasons.

  1. Drug-induced: Anti-cancer, antibiotics, anticonvulsants, antithyroid drugs
  2. Hematological Disease: Aplastic anaemia, acute leukaemia etc.
  3. Infections: Malaria, TB, typhoid.
  4. Autoimmune: Systemic lupus erythematosis
  5. Congenital: Cyclic neutropenia.

Question 28. Folic acid deficiency

Answer:

Folic Acid Deficiency

  • Folic acid deficiency leads to:
  • Megaloblastic anaemia
  • Glossitis
  • Diarrhoea
  • Weakness

Question 29. Blood groups

Answer:

Blood Groups Classification:

  • It is based on the presence or absence of a specific agglutinogen or antigen on the surface of the red cell membrane
  • Important blood groups are:
  1. ABO system
    • It is based on the presence or absence of antigen A and antigen B
  2. Rh blood group
    • Rh fator is an antigen present in RBC

Blood Groups Uses:

  • In blood transfusion
  • For matching tissues in organ transplantation
  • Investing cases of paternity disputes
  • Helpful in emergency conditions
  • In pregnancy
  • For research purposes
  • Anthropological purposes

Question 30. Hematological and bone marrow findings of multiple myeloma

Answer:

Hematological And Bone Marrow Findings Of Multiple Myeloma

  1. Blood examination shows
    • Anaemia
    • Neutropenia
    • Thrombocytopenia
    • Raised ESR
    • Reversal of albumin globulin ratio
    • Presence of BenceJones proteins
  2. Bone marrow examination
    • Exhibits the presence of at least 10% atypical plasma cells in the total marrow cell population

Question 31. Clotting time

Answer:

Clotting Time

  • Clotting Time is the time interval from the oozing of blood after a cut or injury till the arrest of bleeding

Normal Duration:

  • 3-8 minutes

Prolonged In:

  • Hemophilia

Question 32. Prothrombin time

Answer:

Prothrombin Time

Prothrombin time measures the extrinsic system factor 7 as well as factors in the common pathway

In it, tissue thromboplastin and calcium are added to the test

Normal Time:

  • 10-14 seconds

Prolonged In:

  • Administration of oral Anticoagulants
  • Liver disease
  • Vitamin K deficiency
  • Disseminated intravascular coagulation

Question 33. DIC

Answer:

DIC

Disseminated intravascular coagulation is a complex thrombo-hemorrhagic disorder occurring as a secondary complication in some systemic diseases

Etiopathogenesis:

  • Pathogenesis of DIC includes the following events
  1. Activation of coagulation
    • Etiological factors like massive tissue injury, the presence of infections, and endothelial damage cause activation of coagulation by the release of tissue factor
  2. Thrombotic phase
    • Endothelial damage from various thrombogenic stimuli causes:
      • Generalized platelet aggregation
      • Platelet adhesion
      • Deposition of small thrombi and emboli throughout microvasculature
  3. Consumption phase
    • Consumption of coagulation factors and platelets occurs
  4. Secondary fibrinolysis
    • The fibrinolytic system is secondary activated
    • This causes the breakdown of fibrin resulting in the formation of FDPs in circulation

Structure and function of lymph nodes

Question 34. Folic acid

Answer:

Folic Acid

Folic acid is important in one-carbon metabolism

Folic Acid Sources:

  • Green vegetables, liver, yeast, egg, milk, and some fruits

Folic Acid Functions:

  • The Coenzyme of it, tetrahydrofolate (THF), serves as an acceptor or donor of one carbon units
  • It is involved in the synthesis of important compounds like
  • PurinesIncorporated into DNA and RNA
  • Pyrimidine nucleotide-deoxy thymidylic acid is involved in the synthesis of DNA
  • Aminoacids-Glycine, serine, ethanolamine, and choline
  • N-FormylmethionineInitiator of protein biosynthesis

Folic Acid Deficiency Manifestations:

  • Megaloblastic anemia
  • Glossitis
  • Diarrhea
  • Weakness

VIVA VOCE

  1. Chlorambucil is the drug of choice for chronic lym, paid leukemia
  2. Busulfan, and hydroxycarbamide are drugs of choice in chronic myeloid leukemia
  3. Hemophilia is transmitted as an X-linked recessive trait
  4. Von Willebrand’s disease is transmitted as an autosomal dominant trait

Disturbances In Water Electrolyte And Acid Base Balance Short Essays

by

Disturbances In Water Electrolyte And Acid Base Balance Important Notes

  1. Metabolic Acidosis And AlkalosisDisturbances In Water Electrolyte And Acid Base Balance Metabolic Acidosis And Alkalosis
  2. Dehydration
    • Dehydration is the loss of water from the body
    • Clinical features
      • Thirst
      • Dry mouth
      • Dizziness
      • Dysphagia
      • Muscular weakness
      • Oliguria
      • Mental confusion
  3. Hypokalaemia
    • Depletion of potassium from the body
    • Clinical features
      • Generalized muscular weakness
      • Depression of tendon reflexes
      • Confusion
      • Coma
      • Paraesthesia
      • Muscle stiffness
      • Polyuria
      • Nocturia
  4. Hyperkalaemia
    • A marked increase in potassium content
    • Clinical features
      • Cardiac arrest
      • Irregular pulse
      • Flaccid paralysis
      • Abdominal distension
  5. Hyponatraemia
    • Hyponatraemia is the loss of sodium from the body
    • Clinical features
      • Lassitude
      • Hypotension
      • Tachycardia
      • Reduced skin elasticity
      • Apathy
      • Weakness
      • Coma
      • Oliguria

Water and electrolyte balance short note

Disturbances In Water Electrolyte And Acid Base Balance Short Essays

Question 1. Dehydration

Answer:

Dehydration

  • Dehydration is the primary water depletion

Read And Learn More: General Medicine Question and Answers

Dehydration Aetiology:

  • Decreased intake of water
  • Increased loss from the skin
  • Increased respiratory loss
  • Increased loss in urine

Dehydration Clinical Features:

  • Marked thirst
  • Muscle weakness
  • Dry mouth
  • Mental confusion
  • Coma
  • Intracranial haemorrhage
  • Tachycardia

Dehydration Investigations:

  • Increased blood urea level
  • Raised plasma sodium
  • Urine specific gravity of more than 1.010
  • Polyuria

Dehydration Treatment:

  • Administration of isotonic saline

Question 2. Hypokalaemia

Answer:

Hypokalaemia

  • A decrease in the concentration of serum potassium is called hypokalaemia

Hypokalaemia Causes:

  • Overactivity of the adrenal cortex
  • Prolonged cortisone therapy
  • Intravenous administration of potassium-free fluids
  • Treatment of diabetic coma with insulin
  • Prolonged diarrhoea and vomiting

Read And Learn More: General Medicine Question and Answers

Hypokalaemia Symptoms:

  • Irritability
  • Muscular weakness
  • Tachycardia
  • Cardiomegaly
  • Cardiac arrest

ECG Changes:

  • Flattening of waves
  • Inverted T wave

Question 3. Respiratory alkalosis

Answer:

Respiratory Alkalosis

  • Excessive loss of carbon dioxide leads to respiratory alkalosis

Aetiology:

  • Hysterical overbreathing
  • Lobar pneumonia
  • Pulmonary embolism
  • Meningitis
  • Salicylate poisoning
  • Hepatic failure

Respiratory Alkalosis Features:

  • Fall in partial pressure of carbon dioxide and hydrogen ion concentration
  • Decreased plasma bicarbonate level
  • Paraesthesia
  • Numbness
  • Tingling sensation

Respiratory Alkalosis Treatment:

  • Elimination of underlying disorder
  • Sedation.

Disturbances in electrolyte balance essay

Disturbances In Water Electrolyte And Acid Base Balance Nervous System

Question 4. Hyperkalaemia

Answer:

Hyperkalaemia

  • An increase in the concentration of serum potassium is called hyperkalaemia

Hyperkalaemia Causes:

  • Impaired excretion
  • Excessive intake
  • Tissue breakdown
  • The shift of potassium ions out of the cell

Hyperkalaemia Clinical Features:

  • Cardiac arrhythmia
  • Muscular weakness
  • Respiratory depression

Hyperkalaemia Investigations:

  • ECG Changes:
  • Tall T waves
  • Prolongation of PR interval
  • Reduced height of P wave
  • Prolongation of QRS complex

Hyperkalaemia Treatment:

  • Elimination of the underlying cause
  • 10 ml of 10% calcium gluconate solution is given intravenously slowly over 5-10 min
  • Intravenous administration of glucose along with insulin
  • Intravenous administration of 50-100 ml of 8.4% sodium bicarbonate
  • Nebulization of beta-agonists

Disturbances In Water Electrolyte And Acid Base Balance Short Answers

Question 1. Hyponatraemia

Answer:

Hyponatraemia

  • Hyponatraemia indicates the dilution of body fluids by excess water relative to total solute

Aetiology:

  • Increased ECF volume- congestive cardiac failure, nephrotic syndrome, cirrhosis of the liver
  • Reduced ECF volume- sweating, vomiting, diarrhoea
  • Hyperglycaemia
  • Mannitol administration

Hyponatraemia Clinical Features:

  • Muscle cramps
  • Weakness
  • Fatigue
  • Mental confusion
  • Disorientation
  • Coma
  • Convulsions

Hyponatraemia Treatment:

  • Administration of loop diuretics and hypertonic saline

Question 2. Metabolic acidosis

Answer:

Metabolic Acidosis

  • Metabolic Acidosis is a reduction in bicarbonate concentration, which leads to a fall in blood pH

Metabolic Acidosis Causes:

  • Diabetes mellitus
  • Renal failure
  • Lactic acidosis
  • Severe diarrhoea
  • Renal tubular acidosis

Metabolic Acidosis Treatment:

  • Hyperventilation of lungs
  • This decreases the partial pressure of carbon dioxide

acid-base balance disorders short essay

Question 3. Oral rehydration

Answer:

Oral Rehydration

  • Oral rehydration solution is used in patients with diarrhoea to replenish the lost water

Oral Rehydration Composition:

  • NaCl -3.5 g
  • KCl -1.5 g
  • Trisodium citrate -2.9 g
  • Glucose -20 2
  • Water -1 litre

Oral Rehydration Uses:

  • To replace fluids and salts lost from the body during diarrhoea
  • To restore and maintain hydration
  • Maintain electrolyte and pH balance
  • Maintain hydration in patients postsurgically after burns, trauma, and heat stroke