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Basics In Statistics Definitions

Sample

It is part of a population called the universe, reference, or parent populatio

Biostatistics

It is that branch of statistics concerned with mathematical facts & data related to biological events

Variable

It is a state, condition, concept, or event whose value is free to vary within the population

Basics In Statistics Important Notes

1. Measures of central tendency

• Arithmetic mean
  • Simplest measure
  • Obtained by summing up all the observations divided by the number of observations
  • It is very sensitive to extreme scores.
• Median
  • It is the simplest division of the set of measurements into two halves
  • When the distribution has odd numbers, the middle value is the median, when the distribution has an even number of elements, the average of two middle scores is median
  • It is insensitive to small numbers.
• Mode
• It is the most frequently occurring value in a set of observations

2. Sampling

• Simple random sampling
  • Used when the population is small, homogenous.
• Systemic sampling stratified sampling
  • Used when the population is large, non-homogenous, and scattered
• Multistage sampling
  • Employed in large country surveys
  • Carried out in several stages
• Multiphase sampling
  • Here sampling is done in different phases
• Cluster sampling
  • Involves grouping the population and then surveying
• Stratified sampling
  • Used when the population is large, nonhomogenous

3.Properties of the normal curve

• Bell-shaped
• Symmetrical
• The height of the curve is maximum at the mean
• Mean = median = mode
• The area under the curve between any two points can be found in terms of the relationship between mean and standard deviation.

Mean ± 1 SD = 68.3% of observation
Mean ± 2 SD = 95.4% of observation
Mean + 3 SD = 99.7% of observation

4. Classification of data

• Qualitative data
  • It is data with frequency but no magnitude
  • Nonparametric tests are used for it

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• Quantitative data
  • It is data with a magnitude
  • Parametric tests are used for it

5. Chi-square test is used

• To test the association between the cause and effect
• To find the goodness of fit
• To test the differences between two/more proportions

6. Tests

Basics In Statistics Long Essays

Question 1. Define sample. What are the ideal requisites of sampling, describe different sampling methods.
Answer:

Sample:

It is part of a population called the universe, reference, or parent population

Sample Ideal Requisites:

• Efficiency
• Representativeness
• Measurability
• Size-large
• Adequate coverage
• Goal orientation
• Feasibility
• Economic

Sample Sampling Methods:

Sample Probability Sampling:

• Simple Random Sampling
  • Each member of the population has an equal chance of being included in the sample
  • The member is determined by chance only © Methods of random selection are
  • Lottery method
  • Table of random numbers
• Systematic
• It is obtained by selecting one unit at random & then selecting additional units at evenly spaced interval till an adequate sample size is obtained
• It can be adopted as long as there is no periodicity of occurrence of any particular event in the population
• Stratified Random
• The population to be sampled is subdivided into strata
• A simple random sample is then chosen from it
• Used for a heterogeneous population
• It ensures more representativeness, provides greater accuracy & can concentrate over a wider area
• It eliminates sampling variation

Sample  Cluster Sampling:

• Useful when a population forms natural groups
• First, a sample of the clusters is selected & then all units in clusters are surveyed

Sample Advantage:

• Simple
• Less expensive

Sample Disadvantage:

Cannot be generalized

Sample Non-Probability Sampling:

Sample Accidental Sampling:

• It is a matter of taking what you can get
• It is not randomly obtained

Sample Advantage:

It is inexpensive & less time-consuming

Sample Purposive Sampling:

• It is a nonrepresentative subset of some larger population
• A sample is achieved by asking a participant to suggest someone else willing for the study

1. Quota Sampling:

It involves the selection of proportional samples of subgroups within a target population to ensure generalization

2. Dimensional Sampling:

A small sample is selected then each selected case is examined in detail

3. Mixed Sampling:

Constitute a combination of both probability & nonprobability sampling

Question 2. Define biostatistics. Write in detail the uses of biostatistics in dental public health.
Answer:

Biostatistics:

• It is that branch of statistics concerned with mathematical facts & data related to biological events
• It deals with the statistical methodologies involved in biological sciences

Biostatistics Uses:

• Measure the state of health of the community
• Identify the health problems
• Compare the health status of one country with another & past status with present
• Predict health trends
• Plan & administer dental health services
• Evaluate the achievement of public health program
• Fix priorities in public health program
• Evaluate the efficacy of vaccines, sera, etc
• Measure mortality & morbidity
• Test whether the difference between 2 populations is real or a chance occurrence
• Study correlation between attributes in the same population
• Promote health legislation
• Help the dentist to think quantitatively

Question 3. Define sampling. Classify sampling. Enumerate any one sampling.
Answer:

Sampling:

It is the process or technique of selecting a sample of appropriate characteristics & adequate size

Probability Sampling:

Simple Random Sampling:

• Each member of the population has an equal chance of being included in the sample
• The member is determined by chance only
• Methods of random selection are
  • Lottery method
  • Table of random numbers

Sampling Systematic:

• It is obtained by selecting one unit at random & then selecting additional units at evenly spaced intervals till an adequate sample size is obtained
• It can be adopted as long as there is no periodicity of occurrence of any particular event in the population

1. Stratified Random:

• The population to be sampled is subdivided into strata
• A simple random sample is then chosen from it
• Used for a heterogeneous population
• It ensures more representativeness, provides greater accuracy & can concentrate over a wider area
• It eliminates sampling variation

2. Cluster Sampling:

• Useful when a population forms natural groups
• First, a sample of the clusters is selected & then all units in clusters are surveyed

Sampling Advantage:

• Simple
• Less expensive

Sampling Disadvantage:

Cannot be generalized

Question 4. Enumerate various measures of dispersion & describe in detail the test of significance.
Answer:

Measures Of Dispersion:

• Range
  • It is the difference between the smallest & largest results in a set of data
• Mean deviation
  • It is the average of the deviation from the arithmetic mean
• Standard deviation

Measures Of Dispersion Test Of Significance:

It deals with the techniques to know how far the differences between the estimates of different samples is due to sampling variations

1. Standard Error of Mean (SE):

Gives the standard deviation of the mean of several samples from the same population

= standard deviation / √n

2. Standard Error of Proportion:

= p & q = proportion of occurrence of an event

in 2 groups

n = sample size

Measures Of Dispersion Standard Error Of Difference Between Two Means:

Indicates whether the samples represent two different universe

Measures Of Dispersion Standard Error Of Difference Between Proportion:

Indicate whether the difference is significant or has occurred by chance

Measures Of Dispersion Chi-Square Test:

Measures Of Dispersion Uses:

• Test whether the difference in the distribution of attributes in different groups is due to sampling variation or not
• Test the significance of the difference between 2 proportion
• Used when there are more than 2 groups to be compared

Measures Of Dispersion Z Test:

• Test the significance of differences in means for large samples
• ‘t’ Test

Measures Of Dispersion Synonym:

Student’s t-test

Measures Of Dispersion Uses:

• Used when the sample size is small
• Used to test the hypothesis
• Find the significance of the difference between the 2 proportions

Measures Of Dispersion Types:

• Unpaired’t’ test
• Applied to unpaired data made on individuals of 2 different sample
• Test if the difference between the means is real or not

Measures Of Dispersion Paired’t’ test:

Applied to paired data obtained from one sample only

Question 5. Define biostatistics. Describe in detail the normal curve. Write a note on measures of central tendency.
(or) Normal distribution/ Properties of normal curve/ Gaussian curve.
(or) Mean, Median, Mode.
(or) Measures of central tendency.
Answer:

Biostatistics:

• It is that branch of statistics concerned with mathematical facts & data related to biological events
• It deals with the statistical methodologies involved in biological sciences

Biostatistics Normal Curve:

• It is a pattern followed by very many sets of continuous measurements.
• It is characterized by a symmetric, bell-shaped curve
• In a normal curve
  • The area between one standard deviation on either side of the mean will include approximately 68% of the values
  • The area between two standard deviations on either side of the mean will include approximately 95% of the values
  • The area between three standard deviations on either side of the mean will include approximately 99.5% of the values

Biostatistics Characteristics:

• It is smooth, symmetrical bell-shaped
• The maximum number of observations is at the center & gradually decreases at the extremities
• The total area is 1, the mean is 0 & standard deviation is 1
• Mean, median & mode coincide at center

Basics In Statistics Short Essays

Question 1. Presentation of statistical data.
(or) Pie Chart
(or) Histogram
(or) Pictogram
(or) Uses of biostatistics
Answer:

Presentation of statistical data Tabulation

• Tables are simple devices used for data presentation
• Prepared manually or mechanically

Presentation of statistical data Types:

1. Simple Table:

Way table containing one characteristic of data only

Presentation of statistical data Master Table:

Contains all the data obtained from a survey

Presentation of statistical data Frequency Distribution Table: Two-column table

• 1st column: lists classes of data
• 2nd column: lists the frequency of each class

Charts/ Diagrams:

1. BarCharts:

• It is a diagram of columns/ bars
  • The height of the bars determines the value of the particular data
  • The width of the bar remains the same
  • The bars are separated by spaces
  • The bars can be either vertical/ horizontal

Presentation of statistical data Types:

• Simple bar chart
• Represents only one variable

Presentation of statistical data Multiple bar chart

Consist of a set of bars of the same width corresponding to the different sections without any gap in between

• Component bar chart
  • Individual bars are divided into 2 or more parts
  • Used to compare the sub-groups

 

2. Pie Chart:

• The entire graph looks like a pie & its components are represented by its slices
  • It is divided into different sectors corresponding to the frequencies of the variables
  • The segments are then shaded/ colored

3. Histogram:

• It is a pictorial presentation of data
• Class intervals are presented on the X-axis & frequencies on the Y axis
• No space occurs between the cells

4. Pictogram:

They are small pictures used for data presentation USA

5. Line Diagram:

• Used for continuous variable
• Time is represented on the X-axis & value on the Y axis

6. Statistical Maps:

• Refer to the geographic area
• Dot/ point is used to represent the area

Question 2. Types of diagram.
Answer:

1. Bar Charts:

• It is a diagram of columns/ bars
  • The height of the bars determines the value of the particular data
  • The width of the bar remains the same
  • The bars are separated by spaces
  • The bars can be either vertical/ horizontal

Bar Charts Types:

• Simple bar chart
  • Represents only one variable

2. Multiple bar chart:

Consist of a set of bars of the same width corresponding to the different sections without any gap in between

3. Component bar chart:

• Individual bars are divided into 2 or more parts
• Used to compare the sub-groups

4. Pie Chart:

• The entire graph looks like a pie & its components are represented by its slices
• It is divided into different sectors corresponding to the frequencies of the variables
• The segments are then shaded/ colored

5. Histogram:

• It is a pictorial presentation of data
• Class intervals are presented on the X-axis & frequencies on the Y axis
• No space occurs between the cells

6. Pictogram:

They are small pictures used for data presentation

Question 3. Types of samples/ Probability sampling methods/ Sampling methods.
(or) Cluster sampling
Answer:

Probability Sampling

Simple Random Sampling:

• Each member of the population has an equal chance of being included in the sample
• The member is determined by chance only
• Methods of the random selection are e
  • Lottery method
  • Table of random numbers

Probability Sampling Systematic:

• It is obtained by selecting one unit at random & then selecting additional units at evenly spaced intervals till an adequate sample size is obtained
• It can be adopted as long as there is no periodicity of occurrence of any particular event in the population

Probability Sampling Stratified Random:

• The population to be sampled is subdivided into strata
• A simple random sample is then chosen from it
• Used for a heterogeneous population
• It ensures more representativeness, provides greater accuracy & can concentrate over a wider area
• It eliminates sampling variation

Probability Sampling Cluster Sampling:

• Useful when a population forms natural groups
• First, a sample of the clusters is selected & then all units in clusters are surveyed

Probability Sampling Advantage:

• Simple
• Less expensive

Probability Sampling Disadvantage:

Cannot be generalized

Probability Sampling Non-Probability Sampling:

Probability Sampling Accidental Sampling:

• It is a matter of taking what you can get
• It is not randomly obtained

Probability Sampling Advantage:

It is inexpensive & less time-consuming

Probability Sampling Purposive Sampling:

• It is a nonrepresentative subset of some larger population
• A sample is achieved by asking a participant to suggest someone else willing for the study

Probability Sampling Quota Sampling:

It involves the selection of proportional samples of subgroups within a target population to ensure generalization

Probability Sampling Dimensional Sampling:

A small sample is selected then each selected case is examined in detail

Probability Sampling Mixed Sampling:

Constitute a combination of both probability & nonprobability sampling

Question 4. Simple random sampling.
Answer:

Simple random sampling

• Each member of the population has an equal chance of being included in the sample
• The member is determined by chance only
• Methods of the random selection are the
  • Lottery method
  • Table of random numbers

Question 5. Multistage sample.
Answer:

Multistage sample

It is a sampling procedure often used when the sampling units can be defined in a hierarchical manner

Multistage sample Steps:

• Select the groups/cluster
• Then subsamples are taken in subsequent stages
  • 1st stage: choice of states within countries
  • 2nd stage: choice of towns within each state
  • 3rd stage, choice of neighborhoods in each town

Question 6. Tests of significance.
(or)’t’ test.
Answer:

Tests of significance

It deals with the techniques to know how far the differences between the estimates of different samples is due to sampling variations

Tests of significance Standard Error Of Mean(Se):

Gives the standard deviation of the mean of several samples from the same population

Tests of significance Standard Error Of Proportion:

\(=\sqrt{\frac{p q}{n}} \mathrm{p} \& \mathrm{q}=\) proportion of occurrence of an event

in 2 groups n= sample size

Tests of significance Standard Error Of Difference Between Two Means

Indicates whether the samples represent two different universe

Tests of significance Standard Error Of Difference Between Proportion

Indicate whether the difference is significant or has occurred by chance

Tests of significance Chi-Square Test

Tests of significance Uses:

• Test whether the difference in the distribution of attributes in different groups is due to sampling variation or not
• Test the significance of the difference between 2 proportion
• Used when there are more than 2 groups to be compared

Tests of significance Z Test:

Test the significance of differences in means for large samples

Tests of significance ‘t’ Test:

Tests of significance Synonym:

Student’s t-test

Tests of significance Uses:

• Used when the sample size is small
• Used to test the hypothesis
• Find the significance of the difference between the 2 proportions

Tests of significance Types:

Tests of significance Unpaired’t’ test:

• Applied to unpaired data made on individuals of 2 different sample
• Test if the difference between the means is real or not
• Paired’t’ test
• Applied to paired data obtained from one sample only

Question 7. Statistical analysis.
Answer:

Statistical analysis

• It is based on
• Population
  • It is the collection of units of observations that are of interest & is the target of the investigation
  • It is essential to identify the population clearly & precisely
  • The success of the investigation will depend on the identification of the population
• Variable
  • It is a state, condition, concept/ event whose value is free to vary within the population

Classification of Statistical Analysis:

• Independent
• Manipulated/ treated in a study

Dependent:

• Result of the independent variable
• Confounding
  • Confound the effect of the independent variable on the dependent
• Background
  • Considered for possible inclusion in the study
• Probability distribution
  • It is a link between population & its characteristics
  • It is a way to enumerate the different values the variable can have & how frequently each value appears in the population
  • It is characterized by parameters i.e. quantities

Question 8. Standard deviation.
Answer:

Standard deviation

• It is the square root of the mean of the squared deviations from arithmetic
• It is the most commonly used measure of dispersion

Standard deviation Synonym

Root Mean Square Deviation

Standard deviation Calculation

• Calculate the mean of the series, X
• Take the deviation mean X- X,
• Square these deviations & add them up 5^ 2
• Divide the result by the total number of observation
• Obtain the square root of it (Standard deviation)

Standard deviation Significance:

• The greater the standard deviation, the greater the magnitude of dispersion
• Lesser the standard deviation, a higher degree of uniformity of observation

Question 9. Bar diagram/ charts.
Answer:

Bar diagram

• It is a diagram of columns/ bars
• The height of the bars determines the value of the particular data
• The width of the bar remains the same
• The bars are separated by spaces
• The bars can be either vertical/ horizontal

Bar diagram Types:

1. Bar diagram Simple bar chart

Represents only one variable

2. Bar diagram Multiple bar chart

Consist of a set of bars of the same width corresponding to the different sections without any gap in between

3. Bar diagram Component bar chart

Individual bars are divided into 2 or more parts Used to compare the sub-groups

Basics In Statistics Short Question And Answers

Question 1. Primary & secondary data.
Answer:

secondary data Primary Data:

• Obtained directly from an individual
• It is first-hand information

secondary data Advantage:

• Precise information
• Reliable

secondary data Disadvantages:

• Time-consuming
• Expensive

secondary data Methods:

• Direct personal interviews
• Oral health examination
• Questionnaire

secondary data Secondary Data:

• Obtained from outside sources
  • Used to serve the purpose of the objective of the study
  • Example: Hospital records

Question 2. Frequency polygon.
Answer:

Frequency polygon

Pictorial presentation of data

Frequency polygon Method:

• Obtained from histogram
• Mark the midpoint over histogram bars
• Next, connect these points in a straight line
• Example. Agewise prevalence of dental caries

Question 3. Stratified random sampling.
Answer:

Stratified random sampling

• The population to be sampled is subdivided into strata
• A simple random sample is then chosen from it
• Used for a heterogeneous population
• It ensures more representativeness, provides greater accuracy & can concentrate over a wider area

Question 4. Mode.
Answer:

Mode

It is a value occurring with the greatest frequency

Mode Advantage:

• Eliminates extreme variation
• Easily located
• Easy to understand

Mode Disadvantage:

• Uncertain location e Not exactly defined
• Not useful in a small number of cases

Question 5. Null hypothesis.
Answer:

Null hypothesis

• It asserts that there is no real difference between the two groups under consideration & the difference found is accidental & arises out of sampling variation
• It is the first step in the testing of the hypothesis

Question 6. Variable.
Answer:

Variable

It is a state, condition, concept, or event whose value is free to vary within the population

Classification of Variable:

• Independent
  • Manipulated/ treated in a study
• Dependent:
  • Result of an independent variable
• Confounding
  • Confound the effect of the independent variable on the dependent
• Background
  • Considered for possible inclusion in the study

Question 7. Qualitative data.
Answer:

Qualitative data

When data is collected on the basis of attributes/ qualities like sex, it is called qualitative data

Question 8. Chi-square test.
Answer:

Chi-square test Uses:

• Test whether the difference in the distribution of attributes in different groups is due to sampling variation or not
• Test the significance of the difference between 2 proportion
• Used when there are more than 2 groups to be compared

Basics In Statistics Viva Voce

1. Mean, median and mode are measures of central tendency
2. Range, standard deviation, and coefficient of variation are measures of dispersion
3. The range is the difference between the smallest item and the value of the largest item
4. A census is a collection of information from all the individuals in a population
5. Sampling is the collection of information from representative units in a sample
6. Standard deviation is the most important and widely used measure of studying dispersion
7. A bar diagram is used to represent qualitative data
8. Histogram used to depict quantitative data
9. A frequency polygon is used to represent the frequency distribution of quantitative data
10. A pie diagram is used to show percentage breakdowns for qualitative data
11. A line diagram is useful to study the changes in values in the variable over time
12. Pictogram is the method to impress the frequency of occurrence of events to the common man
13. The chi-square test is a non-parametric test for qualitative data
14. For large samples, z test is preferred
15. For small samples, a t-test is preferred
16. The value of the mean in a normal distribution is zero
17. Standard deviation is also called root mean square deviation
18. The median is also called the 50th percentile
19. The standard error of the mean depicts the deviation

Prevention Of Oral Diseases Definitions

Prevention

It is defined as the efforts, which are made to maintain normal development of physiological function & to prevent disease of the mouth & adjacent parts

The primary level of prevention

It is defined as the “action taken prior to the onset of the disease which removes the possibility that a disease will ever occur”

Prevention Of Oral Diseases Important Notes

1. Prevention of oral cancer
(or) Prevention of periodontal disease
(or) Prevention of dental caries

Prevention Of Oral Diseases Long Essays

Question 1. Define prevention. Discuss the measures taken at the primary level of prevention of caries.
Answer:

prevention Definition:

It is defined as the efforts, which are made to maintain normal development of physiological function & to prevent disease of the mouth & adjacent parts

Primary Level Of Prevention Of Caries:

• It is defined as the “action taken prior to the onset of the disease which removes the possibility that a disease will ever occur”
• It is applied to the prevention of chronic disease based on the elimination or modification of risk factors of disease
• It includes
• Primordial prevention
  • In it, efforts are directed toward discouraging children from adopting harmful lifestyles
  • The main approaches are individual & mass education
• Population strategy
  • It is directed at the whole population
• High-risk strategy
  • It aims to bring preventive care to individuals at special risk
  • It requires the detection of individuals at high risk
• Services
  • Health promotion
    • It enables people to increase control over & improve their health
    • It is intended to strengthen the host through a variety of approaches to health education
• Specific protection
• Interventions used are
  • Immunization
  • Chemoprophylaxis
  • Protection against occupational hazards
  • Use of specific nutrients

Question 2. Write about various levels of prevention of oral diseases. Describe in detail various preventive services rendered by dentists for the prevention of dental caries at various levels.
(or) Community measures of prevention of periodontal diseases.
Answer:

Levels Of Prevention

Levels Of Prevention Primary Level of Prevention:

• It is defined as the “action taken prior to the onset of the disease which removes the possibility that a disease will ever occur”
• It is applied to the prevention of chronic disease based on the elimination or modification of risk factors of disease
• It includes
  • Primordial prevention
  • Population strategy
  • High-risk strategy

Levels Of Prevention Secondary Level of Prevention:

It employs routine treatment methods

1. Secondary Level of Prevention Uses:

• Terminate a disease process
• Restores tissues to as near normal as possible

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2. Secondary Level of Prevention Services:

• Early diagnosis & treatment
  • They are the main intervention in disease control
  • The earlier a disease is diagnosed the better it is treated
  • Further, it prevents the occurrence of further cases

Secondary Levels Of Prevention Tertiary Level of Prevention:

• It replaces lost tissues
• It rehabilitates patients to the point that function as near normal as possible

Secondary Levels Of Prevention  Services:

• Disability limitation
• It prevents the transition of the disease process from impairment to handicap
• Rehabilitation
• It is defined as the combined & coordinated use of medical, social, educational, and vocational measures for training & retraining the individual to the highest possible level of functional ability

Preventive Services Undertaken By Dentist:

Prevention Of Oral Diseases Short Essays

Question 1. The primary level of oral cancer.
Answer:

The primary level of oral cancer

Question 2. Tertiary prevention of oral disease.
Answer:

Tertiary prevention of oral disease

• It replaces lost tissues
• It rehabilitates patients to the point that function as near normal as possible

prevention of oral disease Services:

• Disability limitation
• It prevents the transition of the disease process from impairment to handicap
• Rehabilitation
• It is defined as the combined and coordinated use of medical, social, educational, and vocational measures for training & retraining the individual to the highest possible level of functional ability

prevention of oral disease Services provided by an individual:

Use of dental services

prevention of oral disease Services provided by the dental community:

Provision of dental services

prevention of oral disease Services provided by dentists:

• Complex restorative treatment
• Pulpotomy
• Root canal treatment
• Extraction
• Removable & fixed prosthesis
• Minor tooth movements
• Implants

Question 3. Secondary level of prevention.
Answer:

Secondary level of prevention

It employs routine treatment methods

1. Services provided by the community:

• Periodic screening & referral
• Use of dental services

2. Services provided by a dentist:

• Complete examination
• Early treatment of early lesions
• Preventive treatment
• Simple restorative treatment
• Pulp capping

Question 4. Tools of Dental Public Health
Answer:

1. Epidemiology:

public health Definition:

It is defined as the study of the distribution & determinants of health-related states or events in specified populations and the application of this study to the control of health problems

public health Aims:

• To minimize or eradicate the disease
• Promote well-being of the society

2. Biostatistics:

public health Definition:

It is that branch of statistics concerned with mathematical facts & data related to biological events

public health Uses:

• To define normalcy
• To test the difference between two populations
• To study the association between two/more attributes
• To evaluate the efficacy of vaccines, sera by control studies
• To locate, define, and measure the extent of morbidity and mortality in the community
• To evaluate the achievements of public health programs
• To fix priorities

3. Social sciences:

Includes sociology, cultural anthropology

4. Principles of administration:

• Administrative work is divided into
  • Organization
    • Deals with the structure of the agency
• Management
  • Concerned with the handling of personnel

5. Preventive dentistry:

Levels of prevention

Public Health Primary Level Of Prevention:

• It is defined as the “action taken before the onset of the disease which removes the possibility that a disease will ever occur”
• It is applied to the prevention of chronic disease based on the elimination or modification of risk factors of disease
• It includes
• Primordial prevention ° Population strategy e High-risk strategy

Public Health Secondary Level Of Prevention:

It employs routine treatment methods

Public Health Tertiary Level Of Prevention:

• It replaces lost tissues
• It rehabilitates patients to the point that function as near normal as possible

public health Services:

• Disability limitation
• It prevents the transition of the disease process from impairment to handicap
• Rehabilitation
• It is defined as the combined and coordinated use of medical, social, educational, and vocational measures for training & retraining the individual to the highest possible level of functional ability

Prevention Of Oral Diseases Viva Voce

1. Prevention of the emergence or development of risk factors in population groups falls in the category of primordial prevention
2. The knowledge of the pathogenesis phase of disease embracing the agent, host, and environment is required for primary prevention
3. Early diagnosis and prompt treatment are the modes of intervention under secondary prevention
4. Disability limitation is an intervention under tertiary prevention

Dentist Act And Association Important Notes

1. Dentist act

• Chapter 1: Introductory
• Chapter 2: Dental Council of India
• Chapter 3- State Dental Council
• Chapter 4: Registration
• Chapter 5-Miscellaneous

2. IDA members

1. Honorary members – Persons of high scientific or literary attainment
2. Life members – dental practitioners
3. Annual members – by paying an annual subscription
4. Direct members – persons eligible for membership but not residing/ practicing in the area of the local branch
5. Student members
6. Affiliate members – Nonresidential foreign dental practitioners having dental qualification

Dentist Act And Association Short Essays

Question 1. Functions of DCI.
Answer:

Functions of DCI

• Basic principles for the maintenance of minimum education standard for BDS degree
• Minimum physical requirement of a dental college
• Minimum staff pattern for undergraduate dental studies in colleges with 40,60 and 100 admissions
• Basic qualifications & teaching experience required to teach BDS and MDS students
• General establishment of dental facilities. Its duration, of course, selection of students
• Migration & transfer rules for students
• Regulations of the scheme of exam for BDS & MDS
• Dental curriculum: time & subject specification to clinical program & field program, syllabus, etc.

Question 2. IDA.
Answer:

IDA

• It was formed in the year 1949
• It was registered in Delhi in 1967 with register number S/265

Objectives:

• Promotion, encouragement & advancement of dental & allied sciences
• Encourage the members to undertake measures for the improvement of public health & education in India
• The maintenance of honor & dignity & the upholding of interests of the dental profession & cooperation between the members thereof

Functions:

• Holding periodic meetings & conferences
• Publishing & circulating as a journal
• Encouraging the opening of libraries
• Publishing the papers from time to time
• Encouraging research in dental & allied sciences
• Conducting an educational campaign
• Consider & express its views on all questions about the Indian legislation
• Protects the public from unethical treatment from unqualified practitioners
• Trying to set exemption from custom duty for essential dental materials & instruments

Structure:

• Local branches- within the district
• State branches- within the state

Membership:

• Honorary members
• Life members
• Annual members
• Direct members
• Student members
• Affiliate members

Office Bearers:

• One President
• One President-Elect
• Three Vice-President
• One Honorary General Secretary
• One Honorary Joint Secretary
• One Honorary Assistant Secretary
• One Honorary Treasurer
• One Editor of The Journal
• One Chairman of The Council
• One Honorary Secretary of The Council

Question 3. Dentist Act of India 1948.
Answer:

Dentist Act of India 1948

Chapter 1: Introductory:

• Short title & extent
• Interpretation
• Construction of reference to laws not in force in Jammu & Kashmir

Chapter 2: Dental Council Of India:

• Constitution & composition of the council
  • Incorporation of council
  • Mode of elections
  • Term of office & casual vacancies
  • President & Vice President of Council
  • Staff, remuneration & allowances
  • The executive committee
  • Recognition of dental qualification

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• • Qualification of dental hygienist
  • Qualification of dental mechanics
  • Effect of recognition
  • Power to acquire information as to courses of study & training & examination
  • Inspection
• Appointment of visitors
  • Withdrawal of recognition
  • Withdrawal of recognition of recognized dental qualification
  • Mode of declaration
  • Professional Conduct
  • The Indian Register
  • Information to be furnished
  • Power to make regulations

Chapter 3: State Dental Council:

• Constitution & Composition of the State Council
• Inter-state agreements
• Composition of the Joint State Council
• Incorporation of the State Council
• President & vice president of the state council
• Mode of election
• Term of office & casual vacancies
• Staff, remuneration & allowances
• Executive committee
• Information to be furnished

Chapter 4: Registration:

• Preparation & maintenance of the register
  • First preparation of the register
  • Qualification for entry on first preparation of the register
  • Qualification for subsequent registration
  • Scrutiny of application for registration
  • Special provision for amending the register of the dentist
  • Register of dental hygienist & dental mechanics
  • Qualification for registration as a dental hygienist
  • Qualification for registration as a dental mechanics
  • Renewal fees
  • Entry of additional qualification
  • Removal from register
  • Restoration to register
  • Bar of jurisdiction
  • Issue of duplicate certificate
  • Printing of register
  • Effect of registration
  • Transfer of registration

Chapter 5- Miscellaneous:

• Penalty for falsely claiming to be registered
• Misuse of titles
• Practice by unregistered persons
• Failure to surrender certification of registration
• Companies not to engage in dentistry
• Cognizance of offenses
• Payment of part of fees to the council
• Accounts & audit
• Appointment of Commission of Inquiry
• Power to make rules

Question 4. Functions of IDA.
Answer:

Functions of IDA

• Holding periodic meetings & conferences
• Publishing & circulating as a journal
• Encouraging the opening of libraries
• Publishing the papers from time to time
• Encouraging research in dental & allied sciences
• Conducting an educational campaign
• Consider & express its views on all questions about the Indian legislation
• Protects the public from unethical treatment from unqualified practitioners
• Trying to set exemption from custom duty for essential dental materials & instruments

Question 5. Constitution & components of the dental council. (or) Functions Of DCI of India
Answer:

Dental council

• Once registered dentist possessing a recognized dental qualification elected by the dentists registered in part A of each state register
• One member elected from amongst themselves by the members of the Medical Council of India
• Not more than 4 members are elected from among themselves by
• Principals, Deans, Directors & Vice Principals of Dental colleges in the states training students for recognized dental qualification provided that not more than one member shall elect from the same dental college
• Heads of dental wings of medical colleges in the states training students for recognized dental qualification
• One member from each university established by law in the state which grants a recognized dental qualification to be elected by the members of the Senate of the University
• One member to represent each state nominated by the government of each such state from among persons registered either in a medical or dental register of the state
• Six members nominated by the Central Government of whom at least one shall be a registered dentist possessing a recognized dental qualification & practicing or holding an appointment in an institution for the training of dentist & at least two shall be dentists registered in part B of a state register
• The Director General of Health Services (ex-officio)

Functions Of Dci:

• Basic principles for the maintenance of minimum education standard for BDS degree
• Minimum physical requirement of a dental college
• Minimum staff pattern for undergraduate dental studies in colleges with 40, 60, and 100 admissions
• Basic qualifications & teaching experience required to teach BDS and MDS students
• General establishment of dental facilities. Its duration, of course, selection of students
• Migration & transfer rules for students
• Regulations of the scheme of exam for BDS & MDS
• Dental curriculum: time & subject specification to clinical program & field program, syllabus, etc.

Dentist Act And Association Viva Voce

1. Indian Dental Association was formed in the year 1948.
2. Indian Dental Association was registered in Delhi in 1967
3. 10 members of the Central Council are to propose a person to be elected as an honorary member of the IDA.
4. For the proper management of the IDA, the office bearer’s functions include one president, one president-elect, and three Vice presidents.
5. The office bearer of IDA who need not reside in the city of head office is the editor of the journal
6. The general management of the IDA shall be vested in the central council
7. Those people practicing dentistry as a sole means of living hood without qualification are registered under part B
8. The Dental Council of India was formed on 12th April 1949
9. The Consumer Protection Act came into force on 15th April 1987
10. The Consumer Protection Act was amended in 1993.

Ethical Issues Definitions

Ethics

Ethics is defined as the science of the ideal human character and behavior in situations where distinction must be made between right and wrong, duty must be followed and good interpersonal relations maintained

Ethical Issues Important Notes

1. Ethical principles

• To do no harm
• To do good
• Respect for persons
• Truthfulness
• Confidentiality

2. Informed consent

• It is voluntary, comprehending and confidential
• It is an essential component of a patient’s right to autonomy

Ethical Issues Long Essays

Question 1. Discuss in detail the principles of ethics to be followed by a dentist. Add a note on unethical practices by a dentist
Answer:

Principles of ethics to be followed by a dentist:

To Do No Harm (Non-Maleficence):

• It is the foundation of social morality
• The dentist in cases where pain cannot be avoided can make attempts to minimize it or an alternative can be presented to the patient

To Do Good (Beneficence):

• It should be the role of any health providers to benefit patients, as well as not to inflict harm
• In the process of treating a patient what has to be weighed are the consequences of treatment versus no treatment
• The expectation of the patient is that the care provider will initiate beneficial action

Respect For Persons:

It involves

1. Autonomy:

That dictates health providers respect the patient’s right to make decisions concerning the treatment plan

2. Informed Consent:

• It is both a legal & an ethical concept
• It is an essential component of a patient’s right to autonomy

Justice:

• It is described as fairness/ equal treatment giving each his/ her right/due
• Dentists can provide some free/ discounted care to the needy or provide financial support/donate for low-income patients

Truthfulness:

Lying fails to show respect for persons & their autonomy

Confidentiality:

• Patients have the right to expect that his/her treatment related talks & works are treated as confidential
• It can be breached only if it would benefit the patient
• Confidentiality must be maintained at all times.

Unethical Practices:

• Practice by unregistered persons employed by the dentist
• Dentist signed under his name & authority issuing any certificate which is untrue, misleading or improper
• Dentist advertising whether directly or indirectly for the purpose of obtaining patients or promoting his own professional advantage
• Use of bogus diplomas
• Allowing commission
• Paying or accepting the commission of charges in order to solicit patients
• If the planned treatment is beyond the dentist’s skill, the patient is not referred to a consultant
• In case of an emergency consultation during the temporary absence of the patient’s dentist, temporary service is provided & the patient is not sent back
• If consulted, the dentist accepts charge of the case without a request of the referring dentist

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• Any contravention of the drugs
• Immorally involving abuse of the professional relationship
• Involving in any kind of illegal practice
• Employing secret methods of treatment
• Using sign boards greater than 0.9 m  0.6 m & use of words like teeth, painless extraction
• Insertion of any paragraphs & notices in the press
• Allowing the dentist’s name for commercial articles like toothpaste, toothbrush, tooth powder
• Mentioning any abbreviations after the dentist’s name other than dental qualification

Ethical Issues Short Essays

Question 1. Ethical rules for dentists.
Answer:

Duties Of Dentists Towards The Patient:

• Every dentist should be courteous, sympathetic, friendly & helpful
• He should observe punctuality in fulfilling appointments
• He should establish a well-merited reputation for professional ability
• The welfare of the patient should be conserved
• A dentist should not permit differentiating in terms of religion, nationality, race, party politics, or social standings
• Should keep patient’s information confidential

Duties Of Dentists Towards Colleagues:

• Cherish proper pride in his colleague
• Should not do anything harmful to the interest of the members of the fraternity
• Honor mutual arrangements made regarding remuneration
• Retire in favor of a regular dentist, after the emergency is over.
• Institute correct treatment at once
• Regard it as a pleasure & privilege to render gratuitous service to another dentist

Duties Of Dentist To The Public:

The dentist has to assume a leadership role in the community on matters related to dental health

Question 2. Consent.
Answer:

Consent

• It is a both legal & ethical concept
• It is the largest principle of the Nuremberg code

1. Attributes:

• Voluntary
• Legally competent
• Informed
• Comprehending

2. Process:

• It is a two-step process
  • Information is presented to the patient by the doctor
  • The patient satisfies himself/herself that he/she understands

It consists of

• Description of the proposed treatment
• Material/foreseeable risks
• Benefits & prognosis of proposed treatment
• Alternative to the proposed treatment
• Risks, benefits & prognosis of alternative treatment
• A statement that the patient has understood & is willing to the treatment
• The signature of the patient & of a witness

Ethical Issues Short Question And Answers

Question 1. Tort.
Answer:

Tort

It is a civil wrong or injury, independent of a contract, that results from a breach of a duty

Types of Tort :

• An unintentional tort
• In it, harm is not caused by intentional
• An intentional tort
• Contains intentional harm

Question 2. Ethical principles.
Answer:

Ethical principles

• Ethical principles are
  • To do no harm
  • To do good
  • Respect for persons
  • Justice
  • Veracity or truthfulness
  • Confidentiality

Question 3. Consent.
Answer:

Consent

• It is a both legal & ethical concept
• It is the largest principle of the Nuremberg code
• It consists of
  • Description of the proposed treatment
  • Material/foreseeable risks
  • Benefits & prognosis of proposed treatment
  • Alternative to the proposed treatment
  • Risks, benefits & prognosis of alternative treatment
  • A statement that the patient has understood & is willing to the treatment
  • The signature of the patient & of a witness

Ethical Issues Viva Voce

1. Informed consent was proposed by the Nuremberg code
2. In earlier days, the remedy for medical negligence was under the law of tort
3. Consent considered by the fact that a patient comes to a doctor for an ailment that he agrees to examination is Tacit consent
4. Components of informed consent include information. Voluntariness and capacity
5. The informed consent should be in the local language
6. A dentist is criminally liable if he commits tort intentionally
7. Ethical principles guiding the conduct of the population based on research and practice are macro ethics
8. Informed consent is obtained after participation is involuntary
9. Duties of dentists to the public include not disclosing the professional secrets of patients in public
10. Informed consent is to protect the investigator’s interest and defend them against any liability.